parts of the island the Celtic population was not exterminated during the West
Germanic invasion, linguistic evidence of Celtic influence is scarce. Obviously there
was little that the newcomers could learn from the subjugated Celts. Abundant
borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The names
Kent, York,
Downs
(Celtic
dūn
meant
‗
hill‘) and even
London
have been traced to Celtic sources.
Many English names of rivers and mountains are also of the Celtic origin:
Avon,
Thames, Dover
, etc.
In the Scottish dialects there was preserved the Celtic word
loch
‗
lake‘, which
became an element of many lake-names in Scotland.
Some elements occurring often in Celtic place-names can help to identify them:
-comb
‗
deep valley‘ in
Batcombe, Duncombe; -torr
‗
high rock‘ in
Torcross
, etc.
Outside of place-names Celtic borrowings in OE were few: no more than a dozen.
Among such loan-words we may mention OE
cradol
(MnE
cradle
),
bratt
(MnE
cloak
),
dūn
(MnE
hill
).
17
On the whole, the percentage of loan-words in OE was very insignificant, as
compared with later periods.
UNIT 5. THE OLD ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY
§ 1. The verb
The OE verb was characterized by many peculiar features. Though the verb had
few grammatical categories, its paradigm had a very complicated structure: verbs fell
into numerous morphological classes and employed a variety of form-building means
In Old English the agreement of the verb predicate with the subject was
expressed by two grammatical categories: Number and Person. Besides, the finite
forms of the verb had the specifically verbal categories of Mood and Tense. Let‘s
consider the finite forms of the Old English verb
macian
(make):
Tense
Number
Person
Mood
Indicative
Subjunctive
Imperative
Present
Singular
1
st
2nd
3
rd
macie
macast
macað
}
macie
}
maca
Plural
maciað
macian
maciað
Past
Singular
1
st
2nd
3
rd
macode
macodes
(t)
macode
}
macode
Plural
macodon
macoden
As it is seen from the table, the category of number was represented by two
forms: singular and plural.
The category of Person was made up by the opposition of three forms: 1
st
, 2
nd
and 3
rd
Person; but they were consistently distinguished only in the Singular, Present
Tense, Indicative Mood.
The category of Tense consisted of two forms: Present and Past; these forms are
distinctly contrasted in two Moods. Both in the Indicative and in the Subjunctive
Moods the Past Tense referred the action to the past without differentiating between
prior and non-prior actions.
The Present Tense referred the action to any period of time except past: that is,
to the present or future.
The category of Mood consisted of the Imperative, the Indicative and the
Subjunctive Moods. The Old English Subjunctive must have expressed a very general
meaning of presenting events as unreal or probable. Besides, it was often used in
indirect speech to describe events of which the speaker was not absolutely certain.
E.g.
Hē s
ǣ
de …, þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lan
ʒ
…
(Present Tense, Subj. Mood)
18
―
He said… that that land is (literally, be) very long
ǁ
.
The existence in OE of two specifically verbal categories Aspect and Voice is
debatable. Until recently it was believed that Old English verbs with the prefix
ʒ
e
-
had a perfective meaning (i.e. denoted completed actions) while the same verbs
without the prefix had an imperfective meaning. These forms were supposed to make
up the grammatical category of Aspect. This idea is rejected now as the contrast
doesn‘t appear to be regular enough. Frequently, the verb with the prefix
ʒ
e-
had a
different lexical meaning: compare OE
beran
(to bear) and
ʒ
eberan
(to give birth to).
On the other hand, a verb with
ʒ
e -
could sometimes denote a non-completed action,
while the verb without the prefix could have a perfective meaning (e.g.
syð
δ
an
Wiðer
ʒ
yld læ
ʒ
‗
since Withergild fell‘ – completed action, no prefix;
moni
ʒ
oft
ʒ
ecwæð
‗
many (people) often said‘ – non-completed action, prefix).So it is hardly
possible to regard such forms as making up the grammatical category of Aspect. In
Old English new analytical forms with a passive meaning began to develop from free
combinations. Combinations of the OE
bēon
(be) and
weorðan
(become) with
participle II of transitive verbs were used to denote a state resulting from a completed
action. During the Old English period these combinations acquired the features of
analytical forms but only in Middle English they began to be contrasted to active
forms as forms of the passive voice.
In the OE language, like in many other Old Germanic languages, verbs were
divided into three morphological groups: strong, weak and preterite-present verbs.
The division into strong and weak verbs was based on the way the verbs built their
principal forms. Let‘s compare the principal forms of the Old English strong verb
helpan
(help) and the weak verb
macian
(make):
Present Tense /Infinitive
Past Tense
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