participation is increased. They participate through TPR activities, mime, role-

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grammar items automatically. It is very important to cope with the interference of the 
mother tongue at this stage.
At the third stage students learn to use these grammar habits in speaking in 
natural communication in different activities. 
There are different exercises aimed at the developing grammatical habits:
Imitation exercises. The grammar structure is repeated without any changes in 
its form. Examples: 

Repeat after the speaker. 

Repeat after the speaker during the pause. 

Read the sentences in chorus (one by one). 

Copy the sentences. 

Say that you did the same. 

Confirm the statement if it is true. 

Carry out the order and say what you did. 
Substitution exercises are used to form grammatical habits. Examples: 

Make up sentences using the substitution table. 

Make up sentences using the words. 

Make up sentences according to the model. 

Listen to the dialogue, reproduce it in pairs and make up a dialogue by 
analogy. 

Tell about yourself or about your friend according to the model. 

Answer the questions according to the model. 

Complete the sentences according to the model. 

Look at the photos and say what is different in them. 
Transformation exercises teach learners to combine different grammatical 
structures in speech. 

Say the same in another way. 

Complete the sentences. 

Substitute for the italicized words. 

Write the sentences in Past Indefinite. 

Translate the sentences into English. 

Retell the text as if the action has just taken place. 
Games. 

Speech exercises. 

Commentaries on smth, smb’s actions. 

Prove, that… 

Express your opinion on… 

Discuss… 
Lecture 8 
Teaching listening comprehension 
1. Auding as one of the types of speech activities. 
2. The factors affecting listening comprehension. 
3. A system of exercises to teach listening comprehension. 

49 
1. Auding as one of the types of speech activities. 
Few would dispute the claim that comprehension is necessary for language 
acquisition. In order to communicate effectively, learners must understand what is 
being said. 
Historically, listening and reading (receptive) skills have received less attention 
in language teaching than have the productive skills of speaking and writing. Due to a 
lack of knowledge about receptive skills, teachers often bailed to devote attention to 
developing listening and reading abilities, they assumed that comprehension would 
occur on its own. More recently it has been admitted that it is not enough merely to 
expose learners to oral or written input, it is necessary to teach comprehension, 
because listening and reading are active processes that require interplay between 
various types of knowledge. 
Listening and reading are described as communicative competence. Listeners 
and readers use four types of competences as they attempt to comprehend oral or a 
written knowledge: 
1. grammatical competence: knowledge of morphology, syntax, vocabulary; 
2. sociolinguistic competence: knowing what is expected socially and culturally 
by native speakers of the target language; 
3. discourse competence: the ability to use pronouns, conjunction, and phrases to 
link meanings across sentences, as well as the ability to recognize how coherence is 
used to maintain the unity of the message (understand it as a whole); 
4. strategic competence: the ability to use a number of guessing strategies to 
compensate for missing knowledge. 
Listeners and readers perform a variety of tasks in the comprehension process: 
they analyze, summarize, compare, generalize, etc. Some tasks or subskills reflect 
top-down processing, in which meaning is derived through the use of contextual clues 
and activation of personal background knowledge. 
These sub-skills include identifying key ideas and guessing meaning. 
Kenneth S. Goodman states that “efficient comprehension does not result from 
precise perception and identification of all elements, but from skill in selecting the 
fewest, most productive cues necessary to produce guesses which are right”. 
Other tasks or sub-skills reflect bottom-up processing, in which meaning is 
understood from analysis of language parts. Simply put the listener (or reader) 
combines sounds or letters to form words, then combines words to form phrases, 
clauses, and sentences of the text. 
Bottom-up subskills include discriminating between different sounds or letters, 
recognizing word-order patterns, sentence structures and translating individual words. 
Top-down skills are more useful in second- language learning, as reading is not 
based on oral language use, as is the case in the native language. 
Bottom-up processing can be used effectively in learning to read the native 
language, since oral language is already firmly in place. Therefore, in L1, orality 
leads to literacy, while in L2, literacy leads to and improves orality. 
However, the current view of listening and reading skills is that they involve 
both bottom-up and top-down processing. Listening can be understood as a highly 

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complex, interactive operation in which bottom-up processing is mixed up with top-
down processing, the latter involving guessing. Evidence suggests that good listeners 
and readers use two kinds of skills: 

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