НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЮРКОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СТРАН
V Конгресс социологов тюркоязычных стран 333
şın Türkiye’den evlenerek eşlerini «aile kurma» yoluyla götürmeleri
oluşturmaktadır. Belçika’daki Türk nüfusunun oluşumunda aile bağ-
ları ve akrabalık ilişkilerinin yanında yabancılara yönelik ülkenin si-
yasal ve kültürel yaklaşımı da önemli rol oynamıştır. Belçika’nın çifte
vatandaşlığa izin veren bir siyaset izlemesinden dolayı Belçika’da ya-
şayan Türklerin yaklaşık%80 hem Türk hem de Belçika vatandaşlığı-
na sahiptir. Belçika vatandaşlığı bulunmayan Türklerinde (2013 yılı
verilerine göre yaklaşık 39.000 kişi) önemli bir kısmı Belçika vatan-
daşlığına başvurmuş olup gerekli işlemleri yürümektedir. Belçika’da
yaşayan Türkler başta hizmet sektörü olmak üzere birçok iş alanında
işveren veya çalışan olarak yer almaktadır.
KAYNAKLAR
Abadan-Unat, Nermin (2006). Bitmeyen Göç Konuk İşçilikten Ulus-
Ötesi Yurttaşlığa. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Akgündüz, Ahmet (2007). Labour Migration from Turkey to Western
Europe, 1960-1974 A Multidisciplinary Analysis. Amsterdam: Amsterdam
University Pres.
Castles, Stephen ve Mark J. Miller (2008). Göçler Çağı, Modern Dün-
yada Uluslararası Göç Hareketler. İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yay.
Gelekçi, Cahit ve Ali Köse (2009). Misafir İşçilikten Etnik Azınlığa Bel-
çika’daki Türkler. Ankara: Phoenix Yay.
Gelekçi, Cahit (2010). Belçika’da Yaşayan Türk Gençlerinin Kültürel
Aktarım Sürecinde Anadillerini Öğrenme ve Kullanma Durumları, Türkbi-
lig, Sayı 19, s.117-136.
Gelekçi, Cahit (2011). Avrupa’da Yaşayan Türklere Yönelik Çifte Va-
tandaşlık Uygulamaları: Belçika Örneği, bilig, Sayı 59, ss. 123-146.
Lesthaeghe, Ron (2000). �Transnational Islamic Communities in a
Multilingual Secular Society�. Communities and Generations Turkish and
Moroccan Populations in Belgium. Ed. Ron Lesthaeghe. Belgium: VUB
press.1-57.
Reniers, Georges (2000). �On The Selectivity and İnternal Dynami-
cs Of Labour Migration Processes:An Analysis Of Turkish and Moraccan
Migration to Belgium�, (Ed.), Communities and Generations Turkish and
Moroccan Populations in Belgium,
. Ed.
Ron Lesthaeghe. Belgium: VUB
press, pp:57-93.
Şen, Faruk ve Sedef Koray (1993). Türkiye’den Avrupa Topluluğu’na
Göç Hareketleri. Ankara: Elit Yay.
ТҮРКІТІЛДЕС ЕЛДЕР ДАМУЫНЫҢ ҰЛТТЫҚ СТРАТЕГИЯЛАРЫ
334 Түркітілдес елдер әлеуметтанушыларының V Конгресі
Timmerman, C. (2008) «Gender Dynamics in the Context of Turkish
Marriage Migration: The Case of Belgium», Turkish Immigrants in the Eu-
ropean Union Determinants of Immigration and Integration, Eds. Refik Er-
zan and Kemal Kirişci. London and New Yor: Routledge, pp:121-139.
Yurtdışı Göç Hareketleri ve Vatandaş Sorunları ( 1973). Ankara: Dışiş-
leri Bakanlığı Ekonomik ve Sosyal İşler Genel Müdürlüğü.
Wets, Johan (2008). «The Turkish Community in Austria and Belgium:
The Challenge of Integration». Turkish Immigrants in the European Union
Determinants of Immigration and Integration. Eds. Refik Erzan and Kemal
Kirişci. London and New York: Routledge. 81-96.
THE FORMATION OF TURKISH POPULATION WITHIN THE
FRAMEWORK OF INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION IN
BELGIUM AND ITS CURRENT SITUATION
Assoc.Prof.Dr Cahit GELEKCİ
Hacettepe Üniversitesi
Turkey had signed agreements on labor with several European coun-
tries e.g. Germany, Netherlands, France, Austria and Belgium between 1961
and 1967. Those economically developed European countries had needed
labor force due to their economic policies and the progress they had made.
Within the scope of those agreements a large number of Turkish citizens
have gone to European countries in need of workers under the condition
of working temporarily; nevertheless, in the course of time that temporary
labor migration has turned into permanent residency. The family reunifica-
tion has let the families of Turkish workers settle down to those countries
and most of the single workers got married to Turkish wives/ husbands who
lived in Turkey at the time as well. As a result of those preferences, Turkish
population in the countries in question has increased. Today, approximately
five million Turkish people live in several European countries. Turkish resi-
dence in Belgium begins with the 1964 labor agreement between Turkey
and Belgium. The article discusses the formation and the current situation
of Turkish population in Belgium in the light of the field study which was
conducted in Belgium in 2007-2008.
НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЮРКОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СТРАН
V Конгресс социологов тюркоязычных стран 335
ПЕРИОД ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ ТУРЕЦКОГО НАСЕЛЕНИЯ
В БЕЛЬГИИ В СФЕРЕ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ ТРУДОВОЙ
МИГРАЦИИ И ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ НА СЕГОДНЯШНИЙ ДЕНЬ
Доцент доктор Джахит Гелекчи
Университет Хажеттепе, факультет литературы, кафедра
социологии / Анкара
Турция подписала трудовые соглашения, с некоторыми странами
Европы, включая Германию, Голландию, Францию, Австрию и
Бельгию, нуждающимися в рабочей силе, параллельно с политикой,
применяемой в экономической сфере, и событиями, имевшими место в
1961-1967 гг. В связи с этими соглашениями, многие граждане Турции
были отправлены на работу в страны Европы, с условием временной
работы и обратного возвращения. Но, в дальнейшем, временная
трудовая миграция стала постоянной. Турки, привозя своих жен и детей
в страну, где они временно работали, с целью воссоединения семьи,
а так же заключая значительную часть браков за пределами Турции,
стали причиной постоянства Турецкого населения в странах, где были
подписаны трудовые соглашения. В настоящее время, во многих
странах Европы живут примерно пять миллионов Турков. Период
образования Турецкого населения, живущего в Бельгии, начался после
подписанного в 1964 году трудового соглашения между Турцией и
Бельгией. В данном проекте, на основании данных социологического
исследования в Бельгии в 2007–2008 г., вкратце рассмотрены период
образования Турецкого населения в Бельгии с 1964 года и его нынешнее
состояние.
ТҮРКІТІЛДЕС ЕЛДЕР ДАМУЫНЫҢ ҰЛТТЫҚ СТРАТЕГИЯЛАРЫ
336 Түркітілдес елдер әлеуметтанушыларының V Конгресі
WHY TURKIC SPEAKING COUNTRIES
NEED A SECULAR STATE?
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ayşegül Aydıngün
Middle East Technical University Department of Sociology
Starting with the 1970s, the global revival of religion is a fact
taking place not only in Muslim-majority and Muslim-minority
societies but all around the world. However, repercussions of this fact
differ from society to society. Religious revival has also taken place
in the former Soviet space including the Turkic speaking countries
following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
This paper aims to discuss the significance of religion as an
identity marker especially in the post-Soviet Turkic speaking Central
Asian countries. In this context, the complexity of the relationship
between religious identity and ethnic/national identity is analysed
considering the growing tension between culture and religion which
stems from the deterritorialization of religion and from the growth of
radical religious movements.
The paper also focuses briefly on the current theoretical debate
in the literature on secularism, which puts forward the disharmony
between the principles (freedom of conscience, equality of respect)
and the operative modes (neutrality of the state towards religions,
separation of church/religious and state) of secularism. In addition,
the paper elaborates on the danger of majoritarianism which is an
important threat to the development of democracy in multi-religious
societies, especially in Muslim-majority societies including the Turkic
speaking Central Asian countries. The debate over the universality of
public space is also discussed from a sociological perspective.
НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЮРКОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СТРАН
V Конгресс социологов тюркоязычных стран 337
Furthermore, this paper argues that a secular state is essential
for democratic regimes in Turkic speaking countries, which means
that the consolidation (preservation) of the separation of Islam and
the state is vital. It is also argued that a state which does not enforce
any religion is not only essential for democracy, but also for honest
conviction and for the possibility of unbelief as an option among
others as very well elaborated by the leading scholars of secularism
such as Charles Taylor (2007, 2008) and Abdullahi An-Naim, (2008).
We all know very well that secularism emerged in the West and
that the Reformation movement (16
th
century- we may go back to the
12
th
c.) and the Enlightenment (18
th
c.) were open conflicts between
religious and secular authorities. Of course, this was supported by
some societal changes such as modernization and democratization,
and religion was pushed outside the realm of politics. As result of
these changes, the nation-state emerged and the source for political
legitimacy was transferred from God to people. One has to remember
that the main aim of the challenge of the religious authority was
to give an end to religious wars along with the development of the
scientific mentality that challenged the power of religion in the West.
The development of secularism in the West was a long and
difficult process which is, in fact, not completed. When it comes to
the non-western countries, the development of secularism took place
much later, and the process of modernization has always been subject
to intense political debates. Similar to the development of secularism,
the development of democratization also started much later and
recently, as a result of the growing role of religion in politics, a danger
of majoritarianism has emerged, that refers to the imposition of a belief
system to everybody. Growing fundamentalism in predominantly
Muslim societies is causing an increase in intolerance towards other
religions, other sects and even towards the non-fundamentalist
members of their religion. Almost all of these societies were
colonized societies with the exception of Turkey, where secularism
was perceived as an imposition of the colonizing powers then,
which still continues. The fundamentalist movements which do not
necessarily want to establish a theocratic state certainly aim to shape
their societies according to their own belief systems and impose this
belief system to the entire society. Some of these movements came to
ТҮРКІТІЛДЕС ЕЛДЕР ДАМУЫНЫҢ ҰЛТТЫҚ СТРАТЕГИЯЛАРЫ
338 Түркітілдес елдер әлеуметтанушыларының V Конгресі
power via dethroning the old regimes which were criticized by being
authoritarian and, ironically, became also highly authoritarian. This is
about the danger of majoritarianism which challenges the universal
acquisitions of humanity, meaning democracy and human rights.
Regarding the difference between Western and Eastern societies,
it is very important to underline the difference of institutional strength.
The existence of strong and established institutions of Western
countries constitutes a guarantee for their democracy as opposed to
many Eastern societies where institutions are weak. Although there
are fundamentalist groups in the West either, and although everybody
is not happy with the confinement of religion to the private realm, they
all feel obliged to obey the rules of the strong secular legal system,
which is essential for a democracy.
The development of secularism (a secular-atheist regime) in the
Soviet space, including the Turkic speaking Central Asian Republics
has some peculiarities compared to other Muslim majority and
minority societies. Secularism in these countries was imposed by the
communist party on all levels of the society, followed with a very rapid
modernization project aiming at creating the ‘Soviet man’. Religion,
religious practice and belief were very radically suppressed in the
public sphere, and a secularized society was promoted. Compared to
other non-western societies, this was an important difference.
However, we also know very well that although the Soviet
regime had an important secularizing impact, the project of realizing
an atheist society has failed. The secularizing policies of the Soviet
regime shaped the forms of religious expression and communities,
and individual believers have adapted themselves to the conditions of
the Soviet society to pursue their beliefs. In some periods, especially
during and after the Second World War, the suppressing attitude
of the regimes towards religion slowed down. Later, following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, all communities including the Turkic
speaking Muslim communities, experienced a revival of Islam, as this
was also the case for other religions of the post-Soviet space.
In post-Soviet Uzbekistan radical movements were rapidly
suppressed by the state and many Islamists fled to Tajikistan and to
Afghanistan, where they formed the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
(IMU), which became within time an ally of the Taliban.
НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЮРКОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СТРАН
V Конгресс социологов тюркоязычных стран 339
We all know that in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan there is less
interest in ideologies that challenge secularism. But there are
exported interpretations of Islam in both countries, and there is a
debate over the role of religion in society and in politics. There are
also debates over the limits to state interference in religion. We also
know that in southern regions of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, there
are fundamentalist groups willing to become influential in the region
such as Hizb ut-Tahrir. When it comes to Turkmenistan, which has
a very peculiar situation, the cult of personality of the presidents is
dominating the political and social scene including the religious field.
The Turkic speaking Central Asian states aim to control political
Islam, and for that purpose, they have established official institutions
dealing with and controlling the religious affairs and organizations. It
is of course not possible to deny the differences that exist among the
Turkic speaking Central Asian states because while these policies are
very restrictive and repressive in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, there
are liberal legislations in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. One common
point in these countries is that Islam has become an important marker
of national identity.
It is important to note that in some cases, religion can function
as an ethnic or national identity marker. Going further, it is even
possible to argue that religion can be a key identity marker without
being properly practiced, which is especially true in the post-Soviet
space. When a connection is established between religious marker
and national marker, the religious dimension may disappear and
the religious marker may transform itself into a cultural and, more
importantly, into a national marker. In such cases, religious marker
becomes almost totally an ethnic marker and can be used for the
consolidation of a political identity (Roy, 2010).
In Turkic speaking Central Asian states, two different processes
went hand in hand related to the revival of Islam experienced after
the collapse of the Soviet Union. On the one hand, Islam was used
as a tool in the struggle against the Russian and the Soviet heritage
(meaning Russian culture and oppressive Soviet regime) aiming at
realizing a cultural revival project and building a nation. In other
words, Islamic revival played a significant role in the process of
building an independent nation-state, and Islam was used as one of
ТҮРКІТІЛДЕС ЕЛДЕР ДАМУЫНЫҢ ҰЛТТЫҚ СТРАТЕГИЯЛАРЫ
340 Түркітілдес елдер әлеуметтанушыларының V Конгресі
the basic elements of culture which will contribute to the integration
of the new Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek identities. This is the Islam
sponsored by the state that we can name as ‘official Islam’. This
was named as ‘traditional Islam’ during the Soviet period. Now,
the ‘official Islam’ is in the service of the secular state and it is a
protest to the Soviet regime, to the Soviet heritage and the Russian
dominance. What we observe in Turkic speaking countries is that they
are reconstructing their own Islamic identity in contrast to a sizeable
Orthodox Russian population. This religious revival was more of a
nationalist revival than a religious revival. In that sense, it is essential
to underline the parallel revival of religion and nationalism which is,
in fact, a worldwide phenomenon (Spohn, 2003).
On the other hand however, following the independence of Turkic
speaking Central Asian Republics, different external forces began to
compete in the ‘religious field’ as termed by Pierre Bourdieu (1971),
who argued that the period of the ‘dissolution of the religious’ that took
place during the Soviet period, emptied the ‘religious field’. Following
the collapse, this emptiness caused a demand for a ‘religious field’
entailing a competition among different external forces attempting
to capture that field and responding to the demands of the people.
This caused the competition of different religious and political forces
aiming at becoming influential not only in the ‘religious field’ but also
in the political arena. This also caused a competition in the ‘religious
field’ between official Islam of the Turkic speaking Central Asian
states and the Islam exported by different external forces including
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Pakistan, which are attempting to
introduce their own interpretation of Islam, aiming at challenging the
existing social and political order (Aydingun, 2007).
At this point, it is of vital importance to mention that exported
interpretations of Islam claim a universality and, consequently,
require a differentiation between culture and religion as opposed to
official Islam which desires to strengthen the link between religion
and culture. These exported movements can be named as neo-
fundamentalist movements, which try to construct a pure religion via
excluding the existing culture. Deculturation and deterritorialization
which are the main characteristics of these neo-fundamentalist
movements like Salafism exclude existing cultures aiming at including
НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЮРКОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СТРАН
V Конгресс социологов тюркоязычных стран 341
people from different cultures. This is of course a threat first to the
nation-state and also a threat to people’s freedom and democracy.
These neo-fundamentalist movements experience the most important
revival and they are, of course, very well suited for globalization
as they accept deculturation, which permit them to make claims of
universality. In other words, excluding culture offers a possibility of
including more people; it is an invitation to people from different
cultures. Deculturation is about the loss of the social expression of
religion which transforms the gap between the believer and the ones
believing in other religions, those believing in other interpretations
of the same religion and the non-believer. Religion is becoming
more autonomous, and this constitutes a danger to the integrity of
the society since common cultural values holding people together are
disappearing (Roy, 2010).
Regarding the separation between state and religion which
is the main characteristic of a secular state, it is necessary to refer
to Casanova (1994, 2012) who makes the distinction between
‘secularism as ideology’ and ‘secularism as statecraft principle’.
What he means by secularism as statecraft principle is the separation
between religious and political authority for the sake of the neutrality
of the state and the free exercise of religion (freedom of conscience).
It is the relationship between these two that determines the type of
secularism and the level of democracy in a country.
Although respect for moral equality of individuals and the
protection of freedom of conscience are the two principles and the
main objectives of secularism, the realization of these two is quite
complicated. Their realization requires two operative modes that are
separation of the state and religion, and the neutrality of the state.
The problem is that people do understand equality of respect
and freedom of conscience differently and may ask for preferential
treatments, which may contradict with social justice and the neutrality
of the state that can endanger social and political unity especially in
multi-religious societies like the Turkic speaking countries of Central
Asia. Different interpretations are also made related to the operative
modes of secularism in the sense that states policies either give room
to the practice of religions or restrict the practice of religion. To avoid
all these problems, it is clear that states should be absolutely impartial
|