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8. Inference and conclusion.Comprehension involves understanding not only 
what is stated explicitly but also what is implied. That is to say, the reader has to 
make inferences based on what is stated. To do so requires the ability to analyze and 
synthesize. E.g. from the sentence “Age affects hearing”, we can infer that with age 
hearing increases, decreases or changes. To infer, the reader has to read between the 
lines, whereas to conclude, he has to summarize stated facts. 
9.
Evaluation and appreciation.This is a high-level comprehension skill. The 
reader not only has to thoroughly understand what he has read, he also has to analyze 
and synthesize it so as to form his own opinions and judgements. To evaluate, the 
reader has to read critically. The essence of critical reading is to consider what, why, 
and for whom the author has written. That is to say, the reader has to determine the 
author’s purpose, consider his intended audience, recognize his strength and 
weakness, and distinguish his opinion from facts. Appreciation is different from 
evaluation in that the former only requires the reader to see the merits of the text, 
whereas the latter requires the reader to see both its merits and demerits. To 
appreciate, the reader has to understand the author’s tone and attitude, to recognize 
his literary devices such as the use of figures of speech, to identify his characteristic 
style, and to see his humor, satire and irony. Evaluation is a useful skill for reading 
political and academic essays, whereas appreciation is useful in reading literary 
works. 
The holistic approach emphasizes global understanding of the text, focusing 
students’ attention on meaning. It is holistic because it starts with the general survey 
of the text, going from general to specific, enabling students to see trees through the 
forest. It is cyclic because it consists of several cycles. There is an example of (a 
general) a holistic approach (as a “whole”) to teaching efficient EFL reading 
Cycle I. Class work. After prediction there is a discussion of different 
predictions. After skimming there is a discussion of global questions. After the second 
reading there is a discussion of comprehension questions. 
Cycle II. Homework. Students study the text for full understanding. 
Cycle III. Class work. Questions to check full comprehension, inference and 
conclusion and evaluation and/or appreciation are discussed. 
Cycle IV. Homework (written assignment). Students write a summary or an 
outline of the text. Sometimes they have to transfer the information from a linguistic 
to a non-linguistic form. 
We can see that the cycles are not simple repetition but a spiral. With each cycle 
students’ comprehension of the text deepens. The strength of this approach is in the 
fact that it can kill two birds (speed and comprehension) with one stone (teaching 
efficient reading skills), and that enables students to become flexible readers. 
For our students reading is more useful than the other skills because all of them 
will have to read in their future work, although only a small percentage will use the 
other skills. Therefore teaching of EFL reading is more meaningful, and improvement 
is more urgent and worthwhile. 

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Lecture 10 
Teaching speaking 
1.
Speaking as a communicative activity. 
2.
Strategies for developing speaking skills. 
3.
Speech and oral exercises. 
1. Speaking as a communicative activity.
Speaking a foreign language is the most difficult part in language learning 
because learners need ample practice in speaking to be able to say a few words of 
their own in connection with a situation. This work is time-consuming. 
The stimuli the teacher can use for developing speaking habits are often feeble 
and artificial. There must be occasions when the students feel the necessity to inform 
someone of something, to explain something and to prove something to someone 
(situational and communicative approach). 
Of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems 
intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred to as 
'speakers' of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing; and 
many if not most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to 
speak. 
Classroom activities that develop learners' ability to express themselves through 
speech would therefore seem an important component of a language course. Yet it is 
difficult to design and administer such activities; more so, in many ways, than to do 
so for listening, reading or writing. First let us try to define what is meant by 'an 
effective speaking activity'. 
Characteristics of a successful speaking activity 

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