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Glossary 
A 
Accuracy 
The use of correct forms of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. In an accuracy 
activity, students typically give more attention to correctness.
Achievable target, goal 
An aim that is not too difficult for the learner to reach. 
Achievement test 
An achievement test is used to see how well students have learnt the language taught 
in class. Achievement tests are often at the end of term or end of the year and test the 
main points of what has been taught in that time. 
Acquisition
To learn a language without studying it, just by hearing and/or reading and then using 
it. This is the way we all learn our first language. 
Active vocabulary 
Words necessary for both oral communication and reading. 
Activity-based learning 
A way of learning by doing activities. The rules of language are looked at either after 
the activity or not at all. 
Anticipate language problems 
When teachers are planning a lesson, they think about what their students might find 
difficult about the language in the lesson so that they can help them learn more 
effectively at certain points in the lesson. 
Approach
A set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and 
learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be 
taught. 
Аppropriate language 
Language which is suitable or correct in a particular situation. 
Assessment criteria 
The qualities against which a student’s performance is judged for assessment. For 
example, assessment criteria for judging students’ writing may be: accuracy of 
grammar, use of vocabulary, spelling and punctuation; organisation of ideas. 
Assumptions 
When teachers think about what they believe their students will or will not know or 
how they will behave in a particular lesson. For example, a teacher plans to teach 
present simple using the context of jobs and daily routines. The teacher makes the 
assumption that students will know basic job vocabulary and so will not spend time 
in the lesson presenting these words. 
Attention span 
How long a student is able to concentrate at any one time. 
Audio-lingual method
The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. 
There is much practice of dialogues of every situation. New language is first heard 
and extensively drilled before being seen in its written form. 

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Authentic material 
Written or spoken texts which a first language speaker would read or listen to. They 
may be taken from newspapers, radio etc. The language is not made easier. 
B 
Behaviourism 
A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place 
through the establishment of habits.
Bottom-up processing 
Processing in which meaning is understood from analysis of language parts. Simply 
put the listener (or reader) combines sounds or letters to form words, then combines 
words to form phrases, clauses, and sentences of the text. 
Bottom-up sub-skills 
Bottom-up subs-kills include discriminating between different sounds or letters, 
recognizing word-order patterns, sentence structures and translating individual 
words. 
Brainstorm
To think of ideas (usually quickly) about a topic (often noting these down). This is 
often done as preparation before writing or speaking. 
C 
Categorise
To put things into the group (category) to which they belong. For example, students 
might categorise a list of different foods into groups such as fruit and vegetables. 
Chant
To repeat a phrase, sentence or poem, usually with others, in a regular rhythm. 
Chart 
A drawing or graph that can be placed on the classroom wall and can show 
information such as irregular verb forms or prepositions. 
Choral drill 
In a choral drill the teacher says a word or sentence and the students repeat it 
together. 
Class profile 
A description of all the students in a class, including their age, ability etc. 
Classroom management 
The strategies used by a teacher to organise the classroom and the learners, such as 
seating arrangements, different types of activities, teacher roles, interaction 
patterns. 
Closed pairs 
When students do pair work with the person sitting next to them and no one else 
listens. See open pairs. 

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Cloze test 
A type of task in which students read a text with words missing and try to work out 
the missing words. The missing words are removed regularly from the text, e.g. every 
seventh word. A cloze test is used for testing reading ability or general language use.
Cognitive (processes) 
The mental processes involved in thinking, understanding or learning. 
Cognitivism
An approach to language teaching based on the idea that conscious learning can be 
accomplished by everyone, that all rules are learnable, and that conscious knowledge 
should be available at all times through task based teaching, problem-solving, guided 
learning, learner-centered humanistic approaches. 
Communicative language teaching (CLT) 
The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and 
appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The 
content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting, complaining or 
notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location. 
Community Language Learning 
In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the teacher 
and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There is much talk in the mother 
tongue which is translated by the teacher for repetition by the student.
Comprehension
Understanding of the meaning of the written/spoken material. Comprehension covers 
the conscious strategies that lead to understanding. 
Concept checking 
The technique of asking concept questions or other techniques to check that students 
have understood a new structure or item of lexis. A concept question is a question 
asked by the teacher to make sure that a student has understood the meaning of new 
language, e.g. the new language structure – used to –He used to live in Paris. Concept 
question – Does he live in Paris now? Answer –No. 
Consolidate 
To return to something to understand and remember it more completely. For example, 
students can consolidate a grammar point by doing extra practice. 
Content-based learning 
When a subject, e.g. maths or history, is taught through the second language. 
Contextualise 
To put new language into a situation that shows what it means, e.g.The music in the 
disco was very loud.
Critical period hypothesis (CPH) 
A notion that there is a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. 
There are two versions of the CPH. The strong version is that children must acquire 
their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn it. The weak version 
is that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.
Cultural aims 
The cultural aims mentioned in the school programs of foreign language imply 
widening the students' general and philological outlook, cultivating their sense of 

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beauty and their appreciation of art. Reading of English texts helps students learn 
about the life and culture of the English-speaking nations.
D 
Deductive learning 
An approach to learning in which students are first taught the rules and given all the 
information they need about the language. Then they use these rules in language 
activities 
Diagnostic test 
A diagnostic test is used to identify problems that students have with language. The 
teacher diagnoses the language problems students have. It helps the teacher to plan 
what to teach in future. 
Direct Method
In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not 
allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are avoided and there is 
emphasis on good pronunciation. 
E 
Echo correct 
When a student makes a mistake, the teacher repeats the mistake with rising 
intonation 
so 
that 
students 
can 
correct 
themselves, 
e.g. 
Student: He don’t like it.
Teacher: Don’t?
Student: He doesn’t like it. 
Educational aims
Learning a second language is of great educational value as it gives an insight into the 
way in which words express thoughts. When learning a foreign language learners 
understand better how language functions and this brings them to a greater awareness 
of the functioning of their own language.
Elicit 
When a teacher asks careful questions to get students to give an answer. 
Error 
A mistake that a learner makes when trying to say something above their level of 
language or language processing. 
Explicit way of teaching grammar 
A method of grammar instruction, with direct teacher explanations followed by 
related exercises.
Exposure noun, expose verb 
When learners listen to or read language without being consciously aware of it. 
Extension task 
An activity which give students further practice of the target language or the topic 
of the lesson. 
Extensive listening/reading 
Listening to or reading long pieces of text, such as stories. You may listen to or read 
some parts in detail and may skim other parts. See intensive listening/reading. 

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F 
Fluency 
The use of connected speech at a natural speed without hesitation, repetition or self-
correction. In a fluency activity, students typically give more attention to the 
communication of meaning, rather than correctness.
Formal assessment, evaluation 
When a teacher judges students’ work through a test and then gives a formal report or 
grade to students, to say how successful or unsuccessful they have been. 
Formative assessment, evaluation 
When a teacher gives students feedback on their progress during a course, rather than 
at the end of it so that they can learn from the feedback. 
Frontal exercise
An exercise organized in the following way: stimulus, addressed to the whole
group, - pause (when all the students do the task) - reproduction by one of the
students ( the rest correct themselves) – stimulus. 
Functional Approach 
A way of teaching which uses a syllabus based on functions rather than on 
grammatical structures. 
Functional view
A view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. 
G 
Graded reader 
A story book with language that has been made easier for students. 
Grammar-Translation method 
A way of teaching in which students study grammar and translate words into their 
own language. They do not practise communication and there is little focus on 
speaking. A teacher presents a grammar rule and vocabulary lists and then students 
translate a written text from their own language into the second language.
Guided discovery/Guided participatory approach 
A way of teaching in which teachers provide examples of the target language and 
then guide the students to work out the language rules for themselves. 
Guided writing 
A piece of writing that students produce after a lot of preparation by the teacher. The 
teacher may give the students a plan to follow, or ideas for the language to use. 
I 
Ice-breaker 
An introductory activity that a teacher uses at the start of a new course so that 
students can get to know each other. 
Immersion 
This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our schools. ESL 
students are immersed in the English language for the whole of the school day and 
expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through the medium of the target 

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language, English. Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an 
immersion situation. 
Implicit way of teaching grammar 
Implicit grammar explanation rejects the need for formal grammar analysis. 
Methodologists who advocate this method argue that students can acquire language 
naturally if they are provided with sufficient comprehensible input from the teacher. 
In other words, if students are exposed to a sufficient amount of comprehensible 
input, they will eventually be able to make up rules and determine the functions and 
the meanings of the linguistic forms. 
Individual exercise 
An exercise in which students do the task in turn and each student’s speaking
time is limited. 
Inductive learning 
An approach to learning in which students are not first taught the rules of grammar. 
They work out the rules for themselves by using the language. See deductive 
learning. 
Informal assessment, evaluation 
When a teacher decides whether a student is doing well or not, or whether a course is 
successful or not, but without a test or an official report or grade. 
Information-gap activity 
A classroom activity in which students work in pairs or groups. Students are given a 
task, but they are given different information and to complete the task, they have to 
find out the missing information from each other. 
Innatism 
A theory that human beings are born with same basic knowledge
about languages in general that makes it possible to learn the specific language of the 
environment. 
Interactionism 
A theory that language acquisition is based both on learners’ innate abilities and on 
opportunities to engage in conversations in which other speakers modify their
speech to match the learners’ communication requirements. 
Interference 
When the learner’s mother tongue influences their performance in the target 
language. A learner may make a mistake because they use the same grammatical 
pattern in the target language as they use in their mother tongue. The L1 grammatical 
pattern is not appropriate in L2. 
Interlanguage 
Learners’ own version of the second language which they speak as they learn. 
Interlanguage is constantly changing and developing as learners learn more of the 
second language. 
J 
Jigsaw listening/reading 
A text which is divided into two or more parts. Students have to listen to or read their 
part, then share their information with other students in order to complete the task.

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Jumbled paragraphs, pictures, sentences 
A text in which the paragraphs or sentences are not in the correct order, or a series of 
pictures that are in the wrong order. The students have to put the text or pictures into 
the correct order. 
K, L 
Kinaesthetic learner 
A learner who learns more easily by physically doing things. This type of learner 
likes to move around or move objects while learning. 
Language awareness 
Understanding the rules of how language works. 
Lead-in
The activity or activities used to prepare students to work on a text or main task. A 
lead-in often includes an introduction to the topic of the text or main task and 
possibly study of some new key language required for the text or main task. 
Learning strategies 
The techniques which a student consciously uses when learning or using language, 
e.g. deducing the meaning of words from context; predicting content before reading. 
Lexical Approach 
A way of analysing language that is based on lexical items such as words, multi-word 
units, collocations and fixed expressions rather than grammatical structures. Some 
ELT books and materials organise their syllabuses around the Lexical Approach. 
Lexical Syllabus 
This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most 
common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their various uses. The 
syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their frequency, and great 
emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials. 
M, N 
Mentalism 
An approach to language teaching that considers learning a conscious process. The 
proponents of this approach deny the idea that language is “learned behavior” and 
they emphasize that language is the product of our mental/rational characteristics. 
They claim that “competence precedes performance”. 
Method
a) An overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which 
contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is 
axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods. 
b) One of the ways of teaching- the way the teacher works with his students. 
The choice of a method depends on the language material to be learned by
students. In pedagogy you can come across many methods of teaching, such
as: oral presentation of the material (the teacher’s story, explanation, lecture), 
working with a textbook or a book, students visual activities (usage of
pictures, illustrations, films etc.), laboratory work, exercises, creative activites. 

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Mingle
A mingle is an activity which involves students walking round the classroom talking 
to other students. 
Minimal pair 
Two words which are different from each other only by one meaningful sound, and 
by their meaning, e.g. hear, fear. 
Natural Approach 
This approach, propounded by S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning 
the first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes 
place by the students being exposed to language that is comprehensible or made 
comprehensible to them.
Natural order 
The order in which learners naturally learn some items in their first or other 
languages. Some language items are learnt before others and it can be difficult for 
teachers to influence this order. 
Negotiating 
To have a discussion with someone to reach an agreement, e.g. If you help me now, 
I’ll help you next week. 
O, P 
Open class 
When the teacher leads the class in an activity and each student is paying attention to 
what is happening. When students respond, they do so in front of everyone in the 
class. 
Open comprehension questions 
A type of task in which students read or listen to a text and answer questions using 
their own words. 
Open pairs 
In open pairs, one pair does a pairwork activity in front of the class. This technique is 
useful for showing how to do an activity and/or for focusing on accuracy.
Passive vocabulary
Words we recognize in reading only.
Phonemic chart 
A poster or large diagram of the phonemic symbols. 
Practical aims
Practical aims are consequent on the basic function of language, which is to serve as 
a means of communication. There are four practical aims: hearing, speaking, reading 
and writing in L2. 
Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP) 
A way of teaching new language in which the teacher presents the language, gets 
students to practise it in exercises or other controlled practice activities and then 
asks students to use the same language in acommunicative way in their practice. 
Problem solving 
Students work in pairs or groups to find the solution to a problem. Problem-solving 
activities usually help to develop fluency. 

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Procedure 
The details of what is going to happen in each stage of a lesson. 
Process writing 
An approach to writing, which looks at writing as a process and includes different 
stages of writing such as planning, drafting, re-drafting, editing, proofreading. 
Processing language 
The way in which the brain works on language, consciously or unconsciously, in 
order to learn or understand it. 
Productive skills 
When students produce language. Speaking and writing are productive skills.
Proficiency test 
A proficiency test is used to see how good students are at language, or use of the 
language. The contents of a proficiency test are not chosen according to what has 
been taught, but according to what is needed for a particular purpose, e.g. English for 
hotel receptionists, English for studying at university. Cambridge ESOL First 
Certificate in English (FCE) and IELTS are examples of proficiency tests. 
R 
Raise awareness 
To help students understand something that they may not already know. For example, 
if you teach learning strategies, it can raise students’ awareness of how they learn. 
Rapport 
The relationship between the teacher and students. Teachers try to build or create a 
good rapport or relationship with their students. 
Receptive skills 
When students do not have to produce language; instead they read or listen to a text.
Recycle 
To teach words or structures that have been taught before, for revision and more 
practice. 
Register 
The formality or informality of the language used in a particular situation. Formal 
register or language is used in serious or important situations, e.g. in a job 
application. Informal register or language is used in relaxed or friendly situations, e.g. 
with family or friends. 
Reinforce 
To make a student’s understanding of the target language more complete by going 
over it again.
Routine 
Something which is done regularly such as a teacher setting writing homework every 
Friday. Teachers try to develop some routine habits in the classroom, e.g. always 
asking students to record new words with their meaning and an example sentence. 
Rubric 
Written instructions for a task. 

112 
S 
Scheme of work 
A basic plan of what a teacher will teach for a number of lessons. 
Sentence transformation 
A type of task in which students are given a sentence and have to complete a second 
sentence 
so 
that 
it 
means 
the 
same 
as 
the 
first, 
e.g. 
It’s too cold to play tennis. It…to play tennis. (enough). It isn’t warm enough to play 
tennis. 
Silent period 
The time when students who are beginning to learn a first or second language prefer 
to listen (or read) for some time before producing the language. 
Silent Way 
This method is called ''silen'' because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as 
possible in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is 
made of the mother tongue. 
Slip 
When a student makes a language mistake that they are able to correct themselves 
without help from the teacher. 
Structural Approach 
A way of teaching which uses a syllabus based on grammatical structures. The 
order that the language is presented is usually based on how difficult it is thought to 
be. 
Substitution drill 
In a substitution drill the teacher provides a sentence and a different word or phrase 
which the student must use (or substitute) in exactly the same structure, e.g. 
Teacher: I bought a book. Pen. 
Student: I bought a pen. 
Suggestopedia 
The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the 
learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods it is suggested to 
the student that the language is easy - and in this way the mental blocks to learning 
are removed
Task-based Learning (TBL) 
A way of teaching in which the teacher gives students meaningful tasks to do. The 
teacher may ask students to think about the language they have used to do the tasks, 
but the main focus for students is on the task itself. Project work is task-based. 
T 
Technique
That which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick or contrivance 
used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a 
method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
Transformation drill 
In a transformation drill the teacher says a word or a sentence and the student 
answers by changing the sentence into a new grammatical structure, e.g. 

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Teacher: I bought a pen.
Student: I didn’t buy a pen. 
Teacher: I went to the cinema. 
Student: I didn’t go to the cinema. 
Top-down processing 
Processing of language in which meaning is derived through the use of contextual 
clues and activation of personal background knowledge. 
Top-down skills
Top-down skills are more useful in second- language learning, as reading is not based 
on oral language use, as is the case in the native language. 
Total Physical Response (TPR) 
A way of teaching in which the teacher presents language items as instructions and 
the students have to do exactly what the teacher tells them, e.g. Open the window! 
Stand up! This method is very meaningful and good for beginners when they start to 
learn a new language, as they have a silent period and can make fast progress. 
U, W 
Universal Grammar 
Universal Grmmar is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common 
to all language. The child is able to discover the structure of the language to be learnt 
by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical relationships to the structures 
of the particular language in the environment. 
Work language out 
When students try to understand how and why particular language is used. See 
inductive learning. 

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Teacher's Functional Language 
Can you repeat that, please? 
Can you explain that again, please? 
How do I say “...” in English? 
What does XXXX mean? 
I don’t understand. 
Can you speak more slowly, please? 
Right, let’s take the register. 
What did we talk about last lesson? 
Let’s begin the lesson. 
Today we’re going to learn/read/write about … 
First/then/next/after that/finally 
The first thing we’re going to do is … 
Right, let’s stop there. 
Next lesson we’re going to … 
For homework I want you to read/write/do … 
See you next lesson. Bye. 
OK? 
Is that clear? 
Do you follow? 
Sorry, I don’t understand. 
What does it mean? 
Can you repeat that for me, please? 
Can you explain ..., please? 
First you do .../then you do, next ...
at the same time 
finally 
Stand up, please. Close the door, please. 
Can you open your books, please? Could you stand up, 
This is an important point/concept. 
I want you to remember this. 
Does anyone else know? Is that right, John? 
‘Or’ questions, e.g. Does it live on land or sea? 
Yes/no questions, e.g. Does it live in the sea? Yes, it does./No, it doesn’t. 
‘Wh’ questions, e.g. What does it eat?, When does it sleep?, Why does it ...?, Where 
does it hunt?, How does it give birth?, How many ...? 
Check with your partner;
Somebody from this group, please. 
If you heat water, it boils. 
If you add two and two, you get four. 
So let’s start with … 
Let’s move on to … 
That’s the end of my description. 
Watch what happens. 

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