E g.: Smith Смит, Brown Браун, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Джон Фитцжеральд Кеннеди; Cleveland Кливленд, Rhode Island Род-Айленд, Ontario Онтарио; Downing Street Даунинг-стрит, Foley Square Фоули-сквер
As a rule, the object of translation is not a list of separate lexical units but a coherent text in which the SL words make up an integral whole.
Lexical problems
Though each word in the language has its own meaning, the actual information it conveys in a text depends, to a great extent, on its contextual environment.
Lexical problems
The meaning of any word in the text cannot be understood and translated without due regard to the specific context in which it is actualized.
Lexical problems
Some words, however, are less sensitive to the contextual influence than others.
There are words with definite meanings, which are retained in most contexts, and are relatively context-free.
Context-free words are mainly found among proper and geographical names, titles of magazines and newspapers, names of various firms, org-ns,; ships, aircraft and the like;
Handling context-free words
among technical terms used by experts in all fields of human activity;
the months and days of the week, numerals.
Context-free words have permanent equivalents in TL which, in most cases, can be used in TT.
Handling context-free words
The permanent equivalents of context-free words are often formed by transcription (with possible elements of translation) or loan translation.
Handling context-free words
Proper and geographical names are transcribed with TL letters,
e.g.: Smith - Смит, Brown - Браун, John Fitzgerald Kennedy - Джон Фитцжеральд Кеннеди; Cleveland - Кливленд, Rhode Island — Род-Айленд, Ontario — Онтарио; Downing Street — Даунинг-стрит, Foley Square — Фоули-сквер.
Minor exceptions
First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of transliteration when SL letters are reproduced in TT instead of sounds.
This technique is used with mute and double consonants between vowels or at the end of the word and with neutral vowels
(Dorset —Дорсет, Bonners Ferry —Боннерc Ферри)
Minor exceptions
Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering the names of historical personalities and geographical names,
e.g.: Charles I —Карл I, James II — Яков II, William - Вильгельм, Henry - Генрих, George - Георг,
Edinborough — Эдинбург.
Handling context-free words
Translation of technical terms puts a premium on the translator's knowledge of the subject-matter of ST.
He must take great pains to get familiar with the system of terms in the appropriate field and make good use of technical dictionaries and other books of reference.
Equivalent-lacking words
Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however, still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text.
“Filibustering", "baby-sitter", "know-how", and many others.
In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Russian does not coincide and they should rather be named "pseudointernational".
Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors.
Lexical transformations
Lexical transformations are not simple special methods of translation.
Lexical transformations
They are the methods of logical thinking by means of which we convey meanings of foreign words in the context and find their analogues in the language of translation which do not coincide with a dictionary.
