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- THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR LEARNERS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL Akhmetcheyeva A.S.
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. – М.: 2007. - № 3 THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR LEARNERS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL Akhmetcheyeva A.S. Centre of Excellence Almaty, Kazakhstan А а а Ма а а а «О а а а а а а а а ». Б а а а а а а а а а а а а . С а -а , а ǩ а а а . О а а а , а а а а а а . А а Т а а : «Ва а а ». В а а а а а ; а а . Ч а а а а а , а а а . Nowadays development of critical thinking in students is becoming essential not only in high school but in secondary school as well. Critical thinking skills are very important for students as it is defi ned by a number of researchers, for instance, Paul (1992) believes that “the development of intellectual habits that enhance students’ abilities as critical thinkers, namely intellectual humility; intellectual courage; intellectual empathy; intellectual good faith; intellectual perseverance; faith in reason; and intellectual sense of justice” [1,p.3]. In the fi eld of education, critical thinking can be seen as an exercise in higher order thinking skills, associated with the ability to think logically based on evaluated information according to certain criteria. Bloom et al. (1956) proposed a framework which defi nes cognitive presence in education; this has been widely used among educators. It describes six types of cognitive operations, namely knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The last three are considered to be higher-order thinking skills. Higher – order thinking can also be thought of “… the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generalized by, observation, experience, refl ection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief or action” [1, p.25]. On the contrary, lower order thinking requires only memorization of previously learned items. Bloom’s taxonomy was among the fi rst models that provide educators with systematic classifi cation of cognitive operations and one of the most widely used models of cognitive skills in education. It serves as a model that assists educators in presenting ideas and concepts at varying levels of thought. It is hierarchical with “comprehension” at the bottom, and “evaluation” at the top. The three highest levels (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) are frequently said to represent critical thinking. One of the ways of developing critical thinking skills is reading. Reading is considered as a complex, meaning-making and cognitive process that fosters higher-level thinking skills. Critical thinking skills, often associated with learning strategies that include analysis, reasoning, transfer, organization and evaluation, are considered essential in comprehension and language learning. Capable thinkers are considered strategic learners because they embed higher-level thinking skills and use different strategies that aid learning. Yeh’s study on elementary and middle school students revealed that critical thinking is highly related to academic achievement in science and social science. In relation to the relationship between reading and critical thinking, it is confi rmed that people who have critical thinking skills comprehend better in reading than those with weak critical thinking skills. 187 Researchers have pointed out that essential reading requires readers to use strategies that help develop a deep level of understanding and thinking process. What is critical thinking? Critical thinking (CT) has no general mode or defi nition. Current defi nitions refl ect some particular requirements of critical thinking, and usually are defi ned by different meanings. Thinking critically involves various cognitive skills and activities, such as generating information, analyzing claims, identifying assumptions, and determining a reasonable conclusion. [2, p.40] Reading, as well as thinking that is infl uenced by various patterns and factors, is always dealing with cognitive structures. Reading comprehension has been identifi ed as the cognitive skill that people use to comprehend what they read, to deduct information by previous information and knowledge, to evaluate information by their beliefs and values, and to make decisions or judgments. Reading should be taught in the context of a content – centered integrated skills curriculum, since content provides motivation and integration reinforces learning; Individualised instruction should additionally be provided in a reading lab, including a range of skills and strategies (timed reading, vocabulary learning strategies); Sustained silent reading should be encouraged to develop automaticity, confi dence and enjoyment; Reading lessons should take account of background knowledge through pre-, during-, and after-reading tasks; Specifi c skills and strategies should be practiced consistently: the nature of these will depend on the group and goals; Group work and cooperative learning should promote discussions of the readings and explorations of different task solutions and textual interpretations; Students need to read extensively: students need to learn by reading [2, p.35]. In addition to reading guidelines, it is essential to develop students’ critical reading sub-skills. Abdullah (1941) presents the sub-skills of critical reading in the following way: “ability to evaluate deductive inferences; the ability to evaluate inductive inferences; the ability to evaluate the soundness of generalization; the ability to recognize hidden assumptions; the ability to identify bias in statements; the ability to recognize author’s motives; the ability to evaluate strength of arguments” [3, p.21] Speaking about teaching inference, we have to pay attention to its importance of teaching, that learners will study to guess the meanings of unknown elements in the text using syntactic, cultural and logical clues. Teacher should encourage her students to guess the meaning before looking up in the dictionary. Another reading technique is understanding the sentence structure, because some students have diffi culties to work out the complex structure and may be discouraged to read. In this case, a teacher should give enough practice in “dividing the passage into sentence groups” and pay attention on the “core (subject+verb) of the sentence”. Predicting is not exactly a technique, it is more like a reading skill that is crucial in general reading and critical as well. “This skill is at the core of techniques such as ‘anticipation’ or ‘skimming’”[4, p.17]. So, it must be trained systematically via making incomplete passages for students to complete or dividing the text into pieces and asking students to predict the following information [ibid, p.17]. Essential reading techniques of effi cient reading are skimming and scanning. While skimming a reader quickly goes through the text to get the main gist of the text and fi nd out how the text is organized. While scanning a reader tries to fi nd some details, for example date, name or any specifi c piece of information ignoring the “linearity” of the text. These techniques of reading should be taught together, because the learner fi rst looks through the passage to get the idea and then re-reads more closely if he/she has a particular interest in it. Comparing skimming and scanning, the fi rst one is more thorough activity and requires “defi nite reading competence”, while scanning “only means retrieving what information is relevant to our purpose” [ibid, p.19]. Researchers have found that strategies are teachable and that they help improve students’ performance on comprehension tests and recall. Besides, since both reading and thinking involve cognitive structures, strategies that aim to promote higher-level thinking can be applied to enhance readers’ understanding and provided four reading strategies that should be taught to students: summarizing, predicting, clarifying and asking questions. Regarding reading’s association with reasoning, Thorndike (1917) stated that “understanding a paragraph is like solving problem in mathematics”. To this point, reading comprehension has been seen as a process that is similar to thinking for problem solving because readers read with a purpose, to discover meaning by identifying words. In order to gain meaning from a written text, readers need to fi nd out the relationship between words and what the
188 author imposes on the words. Thus, reading for comprehension is not just identifying words; rather, it is related to how a reader manipulates his/her thinking process in order to receive understanding and meaning. Stauffer noted that learning how to read and think from a variety of sources of information is an important skill in today’s world. Critical thinking relies on the ability to be analytical, and so does reading. In order to read with critical thinking, it is suggested that a reading text should include increasing complexity based on Bloom’s taxonomy of levels of thinking. As a result, it is pointed out, essential reading requires the use of strategies that help to develop a deep level of understanding and thinking process. [2, p.36] In conclusion, it is proved the importance of teaching critical thinking skills in the learners of secondary schools. One of the best ways of developing critical thinking is reading. Many researchers have already done on the stages of developing critical thinking through reading activities.
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