A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CASE STUDY

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feel that the intense exposure to the study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss 

case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Giddens (1984) considered case 

methodology ‘microscopic’ because it ‘lacked a sufficient number’ of cases. However, provided 

the researcher refrains from over-generalization, case study research is not methodologically 

invalid simply because selected cases cannot be presumed to be representative of entire 

populations. Therefore, whereas statistical analysis involves the generalization to a population 

based on a sample that is representative of that population, in case studies, one is generalizing 

to a theory based on cases selected to represent dimensions of that theory.

In support of case studies, Hamel (1993) and Yin (2008) have argued that the relative size 

of the sample – whether two, 10 or 100 cases – does not transform a multiple case into a 

macroscopic study. The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and then should 

be applied to all research. In this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, 

provided it meets the established objective. A subsequent researcher using case methods 

will naturally be studying a different case, and therefore may come to different conclusions. 

Similarly, in experimental and quasi-experimental research, the subjects will differ, meaning 

relationships may differ. What makes research replicable in either case study or experimental 

research is not the units of analysis but whether the research has been theory-driven. If the 

case researcher has developed and tested a model of hypothesized relationships, then a 

future case researcher can replicate the initial case study simply by selecting cases on the 

basis of the same theories, then testing the theories through pattern-matching.

DESIGNING A CASE STUDY

Different methodological approaches to the case study

The approach that you take with your case study can take one of three forms. As proposed 

by Yin (2008) case studies can be exploratory, explanatory or descriptive.

In exploratory case studies, fieldwork and data collection may be undertaken before you 

define your research questions and hypotheses, although the framework of the study must 

be created at the outset. Pilot projects are very useful in determining the final protocols that 

will be used and this will enable you to drop or add survey questions based on the outcome 

of the pilot study.

Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate 

cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques. Yin and Moore (1988) 

conducted a study to examine the reason why some research findings get into practical use. 

They used a funded research project as the unit of analysis, where the topic was constant 

but the project varied. The utilization outcomes were explained by three rival theories: a 

knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving theory and a social-interaction theory.

Descriptive  cases  require  a  descriptive  theory  as  a  starting  point.  Pyecha  (1988)  used 

this methodology to study special education, using a pattern-matching procedure. Several 

states were studied and the data about each state’s activities were compared with idealized 

theoretic patterns. This type of study therefore advocates the formation of hypotheses of 

cause–effect relationships. Hence, the descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope 

of the case under study.

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TYPES OF CASE STUDY

A general approach to designing case studies was propounded by Jensen and Rodgers 

(2001) who classified case studies as follows:

•  Snapshot case studies 

– the detailed, objective study of one research entity at one 

point in time. It includes hypothesis-testing by comparing patterns across sub-entities.

•  Longitudinal case studies 

– the quantitative and/or qualitative study of one research 

entity at multiple time points.

•  Pre-post case studies

 – the study of one research entity at two time points separated 

by a critical event. A critical event is one that – on the basis of a theory under study – 

would be expected to impact case observations significantly.

•  Patchwork case studies

 – a set of multiple case studies of the same research entity, 

using snapshot, longitudinal and/or pre-post designs. This multi-design approach is 

intended to provide a more holistic view of the dynamics of the research subject.

•  Comparative case studies

 – a set of multiple case studies of multiple research entities 

for the purpose of cross-unit comparison. Both qualitative and quantitative comparisons 

are generally made.

CONDUCTING CASE STUDY RESEARCH: TIPS FOR THE CASE STUDY 

RESEARCHER

In order to organize and conduct case study research successfully, you should employ the 

following techniques and procedures:

1. 

Determine and define the research questions.

2. 

Select the cases and determine the data-gathering and analysis techniques.

3. 

Prepare to collect the data.

4. 

Collect data in the field.

5. 

Evaluate and analyse the data.

6. 

Prepare the report.

Step 1. Determine and define the research questions

The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which you as 

the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. 

You should have one or more hypotheses and establish the focus of the study by forming 

questions about the situation or problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the 

study. The research object in a case study is often a programme, an entity, a person or a 

group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical 

and personal issues, providing wide-ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity 

to the case study. You should investigate the object of the case study in depth, using a variety 

of data-gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and 

addresses the research questions.

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Step 2. Select the cases and determine the data-gathering and analysis techniques

During the design phase of case study research, you should determine what approaches to 

use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which instruments 

and data-gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each case is treated as 

a single case. Each case’s conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the 

whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select 

cases and critically examine the choices available from among many research tools available 

in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection 

also helps to form boundaries around the case.

 

You must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases 

which are considered typical, and may also select cases to represent a variety of geographic 

regions, a variety of size parameters or other parameters. A useful step in the selection 

process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study, in order to focus attention 

on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer 

the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case 

study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. A key strength of the case study 

method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the data-gathering process. You 

should determine in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use 

with the data to answer the research questions. Data gathered are normally qualitative, but 

may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation 

review, observation, and even the collection of physical artefacts and archival records.

 

Throughout the design phase, ensure that the study is well constructed in order to 

achieve construct validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability. Construct validity 

requires you to use the correct measures for the concepts being studied. Internal validity 

(especially important with explanatory or causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions 

lead to other conditions and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple 

sources to uncover convergent lines of enquiry. External validity reflects whether or not 

findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more variations in places, 

people and procedures a case study can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more 

external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy and precision of measurement. If 

your case study design is robust, then the procedures used will be well documented and can 

be repeated with the same results.

Step 3. Prepare to collect the data

Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, the 

systematic organization of the data is important to prevent you from becoming overwhelmed 

by the amount of data and to prevent you from losing sight of the original research purpose 

and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented 

and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, 

storing and retrieving data for analysis.

 

Exemplary case studies prepare good training programmes for investigators, establish 

clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot 

study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. 

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You need to be able to ask effective questions, be a good listener – listening carefully to 

the exact words during an interview, and be able to interpret the answers fully. You should 

review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative 

evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. You need to understand the purpose of 

the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings, as well as being aware 

that you are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure 

of what the case study will bring.

Step 4. Collect data in the field

You must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and systematically, 

in formats that can be referenced and classified so that converging lines of enquiry and 

patterns  can  be  uncovered. You  should  carefully  observe  the  object  of  the  case  study 

and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of 

arrangements with the objects of the study or the addition of questions to interviews may 

be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are 

made, they are documented systematically.

 

Effective case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data 

in order to be readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings 

and intuitions, pose questions and document the work in progress. They record testimonies, 

stories and illustrations that can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending bias 

because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give an early signal 

that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to 

be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should be kept 

separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis. Maintaining the relationship 

between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. You may enter some data into a database 

and physically store other data, but you should document, classify and cross-reference all 

evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of 

the study.

Step 5. Evaluate and analyse the data

You  can  examine  raw  data  using  many  interpretations  in  order  to  find  links  between 

the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research questions. 

Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, you should remain open to new opportunities 

and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data-collection methods and 

analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to 

strengthen the research findings and conclusions.

 

A good case study will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or 

create new insights, and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. 

You should categorize, tabulate and recombine data to address the initial propositions or 

purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. 

Focused, short, repeat interviews may be necessary to gather additional data, to verify key 

observations or check a fact.

 

Specific  techniques  include  placing  information  into  arrays,  creating  matrices  of 

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categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating the frequency of events. You 

should use the quantitative data that have been collected to corroborate and support the 

qualitative data, which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory underlying 

relationships.  Another  technique  is  to  use  multiple  investigators  to  gain  the  advantage 

provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. 

When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases.

 

Pattern-matching  compares  an  empirical  pattern  with  a  predicted  one.  Internal 

validity is enhanced when the patterns coincide. If the case study is an explanatory one, the 

patterns may be related to the dependent or independent variables. If it is a descriptive study, 

the predicted pattern must be defined prior to data collection. Yin (2008) recommended 

using rival explanations as pattern-matching when there are independent variables involved. 

This requires the development of rival theoretical propositions, but the overall concern 

remains the degree to which a pattern matches the predicted one.

Step 6. Prepare the report

A good case study reports the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one 

that can be easily understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and 

reach an understanding independent of the researcher. Case studies present data in very 

publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her own 

real-life situation. You should pay particular attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain 

the reader’s confidence that all avenues have been explored, clearly communicating the 

boundaries of the case, and giving special attention to conflicting propositions.

 

Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate 

chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Alternatively, you could relate the 

findings from the case study as a story. During the report preparation process, you should 

critically examine the document, looking for ways to perfect the report, and rewrite and 

make revisions accordingly.

THE USE OF CASE STUDIES IN EDUCATION

One of the areas in which case studies have been gaining popularity is education, and in 

particular educational evaluation and instructional use in order to develop critical thinking, 

skills and knowledge (Stake, 1995). Teaching and learning styles are, by their very nature, 

changing, and in recent years there has been a noticeable move from lecture-based activities 

towards more student-centred activities. Students can learn more effectively when actively 

involved in the learning process, and the case study approach is one way in which such active 

learning strategies can be implemented. Such student-centred activities are typically based 

on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting. This definition of a 

case study covers the variety of different teaching structures we use, ranging from short, 

individual case studies to longer, group-based activities.

 

In order to illustrate the implementation of case studies in the field of education, 

there follow some examples of research that have incorporated this methodology.

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Example 1

A critical evaluation of visual teaching and learning methods with special reference to animation 

and modelling for their conceptual and motivational value in teaching environmental chemistry 

(research completed for a Masters degree in Education)

The study examined the use and effectiveness of animation and modelling for both their 

conceptual and motivational value in the teaching of environmental chemistry.

 

To investigate the role of animation in facilitating students’ learning and improving 

motivation in science, a mixed-gender, high-ability, Year 9 set was chosen as the study 

group. Flash animation was used to teach the concept of acid rain formation and stop–

start animation was used to teach the concept of global warming. Students’ views on the 

usefulness of using animation to promote learning and motivation were obtained by talking 

to the students individually during lessons. Students also completed a questionnaire, which 

requested information about the students’ favourite subjects and their views of science. In 

addition, students were asked about their feelings on the animations over the course of 

the sequence of the lessons. Although there is no measurable indication that animations 

increased students’ learning in science, the majority of the students did report that they 

felt the animations helped them understand and remember the dynamic concepts. It must 

therefore not be disregarded as a possible teaching tool for aiding the understanding of 

concepts in science.

Example 2

Gifted and Talented: Policy and implementation in schools (research completed for a Masters 

degree in Education)

A study was conducted into the provision made for Gifted and Talented (G&T) pupils at a 

whole school and departmental level at two high-achieving mixed comprehensive schools. 

Data were collected via G&T documentation provided by schools, observation of lessons, 

and via interviews with G&T coordinators, science teachers and G&T pupils. The interview 

with the GATCO was used in conjunction with the schools’ documentation (policy, advice to 

parents, etc.) to identify how the school had interpreted and implemented the national G&T 

initiative. The data collected in this project suggest that in order to maintain the motivation 

and enthusiasm of G&T pupils in our schools, we neither have to differentiate the work for 

them in every lesson nor overload them with extra work. Rather, by ensuring that they are 

challenged and stimulated in some areas of their school life (be these curriculum-related 

extension activities, sport, in-school responsibilities, or other extra-curricular activities), G&T 

pupils can be provided with a healthy balance between challenge and success.

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