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FEATURES OF KAZAKH TOPONYMS
Zhanna Bugybayeva
Abay Kazakh National Pedagogical University, PhD Doctoral and Master’s Institute, 25 Zhambul
St., Almaty, Kazakhstan
Abstract
The work is devoted to the study of toponyms in Kazakh language. Toponymy is the
study of place names, their origins and meanings. Toponyms also gives a great opportunity to
analyze the national interconnections with other people, what difficulties and events, historical facts
they came across in the development of the country, nation‘s understanding of surroundings,
religious aspects, ethnic values, its geographical natural values and professional deals. In general,
toponyms of any country can reveal linguistic and cultural peculiarities national language: history
of the nation, its famous people, development, famous events, national characteristics and etc. In
our research we analyzed the features of Kazakh toponyms, peculiar characteristics of well-known
place names in the country and classified them according to their structure and gave detailed word-
formation analysis of toponyms. Kazakhstan has a vast territory, various geographical places,
ethnographic wealth and the language is rich in onomastic word-stock.
While analyzing structural forms of toponyms, we pay attention to anthropological
principles of regional names of geographical places: cities, towns, villages, streets, sea, rivers,
deserts, forests, ethno-cultural and historical places of Kazakhstan.
Key words: toponyms, history of language, word formation, history of nation.
The word "toponymy" is derived from the greek words tópos (τόπος) ("place") and ónoma (ὄνομα)
("name"). Toponymy is itself a branch of onomastics, the study of names of all kinds. Toponym is
the name of a region or place or a name that is derived due to its association with a certain place.
Toponyms make for a fascinating study in linguistics. The etymology of toponyms can be traced to
folklore, mythology or historical reasons regarding migrations of various cultures and languages.
Toponyms represent persistent linguistic facts, which have major historical and political
significance. Different types of toponym exist which include Agronym referring to the name of a
pasture or field. Dromonym is the name given to transportation routes while Drymonym is a name
associated with a forest. Econym refers to the name of a town or village while Limnonym is the
name coined for a pond or lake. Likewise, Necronym suggests the name of a burial place or
cemetery.
In Kazakh linguistics there are not many works devoted to linguistic characteristics of toponyms,
but the phono-semantic classifications of Kazakh toponyms were described and thoroughly
described in the A.Makulbek‘s dissertation thesis ―Phonosemantic description of Kazakh
toponyms‖. While describing phono-semantic characteristics of toponyms and geographical
terms in his dissertation, Kazakh scholar Makulbek Azamat stated that in Kazakh sound imitating
toponyms, root stems and morphemes have relict etymologically expressing or obscured
ideophones (or phoneme types, phono-semantic models), which provides sound imitating of
―sounding‖ geographic objects. The main theoretical statements to be defended in his dissertation
were:
-in the vocabulary of Kazakh toponyms and geographical terms there some onomatopoetic units
with relic peculiarities of ideaphones and imitative;
-monosyllable ideaphones and imitative formed in a period of language origin one can find as roots
and stems in lexicalized and grammaticalized derivatives in modern languages;
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174
-names of positive reliefs have a phonosemantic nature based on the sound symbolism of labial
sounds - phonemes;
-onomatopoetic toponyms their roots and stems are based on imitation of natural sounds produced
by object of phonosemantic nomination;
-sound symbolic hydronyms, their sound construction contain ideaphones symboling features of
running warter on the phonosemantic level through phenomenon of cynestesy and synestemy.
Latest years of independence brought back a number of national terms of geographic place names
in Kazakhstan. The president of the country announced that we should replace some historical
places according to their original names.
A philosophical consideration of proper nouns finds three properties:
Uniqueness of referent. According to J. S. Mill (1843), proper nouns identify a specific
thing, one that is unique. The differentiation, therefore, between general names, and individual or
singular names, is primal; and may be considered as the first grand division of names. A general
name is closely used, a name which is able of bring truly affirmed, in the same sense, of each of an
indefinite number of things. An individual or singular name is a name which is only able of being
truly affirmed, in the same sense, of one thing .
Specificity of label. J. Locke (1869) noted that this property originates from the way in
which proper nouns are used to separate one particular item from all other similar ones. Likewise
persons, countries, cities, rivers, mountains, and other distinctions of place have usually found
peculiar names, and that for the same reason; they being such as men have often an occasion to
mark particularly, and, as it were, set before others in their discourses with them.
Does not impart connotation or attributes. According to J. S. Mill (1843), proper nouns do
not carry meaning other than as a label for a specific object and they are not translated. Thus, man
is capable of being truly affirmed of John, Peter, George, and other persons without assignable
limits: and it is affirmed of all of them in the same sense; for the word man expresses certain
qualities, and when we predicate it of those persons, we categorically state that they all own those
qualities. But John is only capable of being truly affirmed of one single person, at least in the same
sense. For although there are many persons who bear that name, it is not conferred upon them to
indicate any qualities, or anything which belongs to them in common; and cannot be said to be
affirmed of them in any sense at all, consequently not in the same sense.
As for toponyms referential and connotational meanings are most important in coining place names.
For example, we name the village Abai where he was born in. We name the place Makhambet
where he fought against enemies, Kurmangazi where he was born and known as a musician and
statesman of his time. We also name the main streets in the biggest cities of the country as Abai
street, because he distinguished writer of Kazakh people.
V.A. Nikonov compares topoformants with ―labeled atom‖ and believes that with their help it is
possible to trace resettlement of the nations. But he admits that it is difficult to determine the age of
the name and that accuracy of ± 100 years is quite rare. This method is convenient for the Slavonic
languages where toponyms are formed with the help of affixes, but it is not always suitable for the
Turkic languages where toponyms are mostly formed by composition of two roots.
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The role of colours play important role in the formation of toponymic words in Kazakh. There is a
set of place names in which name is followed after the colour, comes first colours ‗akh‘, ‗kok‘,
‗kizil‘, ‗kara‘, ‗ala‘- ‗white‘, ‗blue‘, ‗red‘, ‗white and black‘ and etc. as a description of a place
name: Akmola, Aktobe, Koktobe, Kokkhainar, Kizilkum, Alatau and etc.
In works literar toponyms used the tendency to use anthropo- and toponyms characteristic
for the motherland and the writer; the author often uses the poetic names formed according to real
models of proper names in order to strengthen the trustworthiness of his stories; in case when
onomastic details are absent the writer widens the description of objects not having proper names;
there are some favourite proper names of the same class which can be traced in several works.
Poetic proper names in many works fulfill text-forming, characteristic, expressive functions, serve
as a means of cohesion, identifying signs of the work, and at the same time reveal the subject and
the author's conception. The wide range and variety of proper names demonstrate the large scale of
the author‘s thinking. Most authors are striving for the detailed and genuine depiction of the events
in their works.
There is no common opinion in the study and stratigraphy of the Turkic languages. Thus,
Y.Koishibayev divides Kazakh toponyms into five groups, A.Abdrakhmanov singles out two big
language layers. He pays attention to the etymology of toponyms. In his research works there are
several groups have been mentioned: 1. Ancient Turkic; 2. Ogyz-kipchak; 3. Foreign; 4. New. The
groups vary depending on peculiarities of toponyms of each region of the republic. In the general
Turkic toponymy, including the Kazakh toponymy, it is reasonable to distinguish three groups: 1.
Of undetermined origin; 2. Ancient Turkic; 3. Foreign K.M. Mussayev‘s classification can be
modified in the following way: 1. The ancient group; 2. The foreign group; 3. The new group. This
is convenient for studying common language groups by subgroups, taking into consideration
peculiarities of each region. For example, the group of ancient toponyms can be divided into: а)
ancient Turkic; b) a group of languages of Altaic origin and etc.; the group of foreign words can be
divided into subgroups by the historical peculiarities of the region. Thus, it is not necessary to
divide language groups of East Kazakhstan into Ural-Altaic and Arabian-Persian. Toponymy of this
region is comprised by Mongolian and Russian language layers; among closely related languages
there are elements of the East Kipchak languages. South Altai is the region on the borders of
Kazakhstan, Russia, China, and Mongolia. The same is ‗Orinbor‘ which was converted into
Russian like ‗Orenburg‘. This is a sacred place where all Turkic speaking peoples with a very rich
history came from. Such historical and geographical conditions could not but leave the mark in the
toponymy of the region.
In different cultures, time periods have often been named after the person who ruled during that
period:
One of the first recorded cases of eponymy occurred in the second millennium BC, when the
Assyrians named each year after a high official (limmu).
During Soviet Union, many personal names and objects were used as eponymous names. They
were related to the people who were famous during the October revolution and things or patriotic
actions which were important in the formation of former Soviet Socialistic republics. E.g.:
Alekseevka, Krasnayapolya,Tselinograd, Chapaev, Partsiezd,and many others.
Government administrations or political trends often become eponymous with a government leader.
It was found in naming street names, like in: Lenin avenue, Furmanov, Kalinin, Vinogradov,
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Dzerzhinski and many other street names could be found in many cities, towns and villages. After
the Kazakhstan‘s independence they have been renamed to Kazakh famous people or action names,
like: Abai, Ablaikhan, Auezov, Baitursynuli, Bogenbai, Kabanbai, Kurmangazi, Momishuli, Tole
bi, Kazibek bi, Seifullin, Makhambet, Isatay and many other famous khans, leaders, politicians,
heroes, poets, writers of their time and place. In twenty years of Kazakhstan‘s independence,
thousands of geographical names interpreted into Kazakh.
Foreign layer of the Kazakh language includes Arabic, Iranian, Mongolian and Russian word. The
Kazakh toponymy is one of the structural parts of vocabulary, that is why it also contains foreign
words. The fact that these four language layers are unequally spread in the toponymy can be seen in
each region. For example in the toponymy of East Kazakhstan Arabian and Iranian words cannot
be singled out in a separate layer. An orographic term dara which some linguists consider to be of
Iranian-Tajik origin, can be viewed as a Kazakh word meaning a solitary mountain or the vicinity
of a mountain where a solitary man resides. For example: Moekiledarassy (Мәкиледарасы),
Bapydarassy (Бапыдарасы), Sholakhdara (Шолақдара), Kharabiyedarassy (Қарабиедарасы) –
are the names of the mountains located separately, outside the mountain ranges. Even if the
word dara is of Iranian origin together with its variants derel, darby cannot form a separate
language layer. There is no evidence that Iranian-Persian people ever lived in the Altai region.
Some names could be brought by Naiman people, who migrated back from Ulytau and Sir Darya to
their historical homeland 250-300 years ago.
K. Konkabayev, who studied the toponymy of South Kirghizia, points out that the Iranian
language layer can be found in the vicinity of Osh, and becomes sparse farther to the North. In the
South of Kazakhstan there prevail toponyms of Arabian, Persian, Sogdian and Tajik languages; in
the North there are many Russian toponyms, in the East – Mongolian.
Among the world languages which are directly or indirectly connected with Turkic
languages a significant role is played by Mongolian and Russian languages. There are many
research works devoted to Turkic-Slavic and Turkic-Mongolian language relations. These works
include studies of Turkic-Mongolian languages from the point of view of the Altai theory. Speaking
about inter-language relations, which, first of all, are reflected in the vocabulary we need to
mention that they are found in onomastics as an integral part of vocabulary. The most dynamic
among all onomastic groups is anthroponymy, while toponymy is characterized by endurance and
stability. That is why toponyms are often used as examples in the research of a foreign language
layer.
In the course of time, functioning in the dominant language, foreign names go through the
process of assimilation and undergo phonetic changes. Thus, the Kazakh language has a power to
«digest words», and like other languages of Altai origin, it subordinates words belonging to other
type of languages to its norms. E.g.: Kazakh Сӛгір (Soegir) – Russian Согра (Sogra),
Kazakh Мақсым (Makhsym )– Russian Максим (Maksim), Kazakh Матабай (Matabai) –
Russian Матвей (Matvei), Kazakh Боласа (Bolassa) – Russian Полоса (Polossa), Kazakh Бекет
(Beket) – Russian Пикет (Piket) and others. This fact indicates the following peculiarities of the
system of the Kazakh language:
- The effect of vocalic harmony (Russian Согра (Sogra) – Kazakh Сӛгҥр (Soegir));
- Alteration of vowels and consonants (Russian Матвей (Matvei) – Kazakh Матабай (Matabai));
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- Occurrence of voiced consonants in the beginning of the word (Russian Полоса (Polossa) –
Kazakh Боласа (Bolassa), Russian Пикет (Piket) – Kazakh Беккет (Bitet) and others.
Identification of such peculiarities in the structure of toponyms is realized on the basis of
etymological research. B.A. Serebrennikov believes that etymology of toponyms should be studied
in isolation from common names or any words at all. He says that «toponyms, although they
comprise quite a big layer in the language, are created and developed in their own way».
The main peculiarity of toponyms as opposed to anthroponyms and appellatives is a direct
connection of signification and denotation. Some toponyms directly describe the object they name.
That is why when performing the etymological analysis we have to consider physical-geographical
characteristics of the names, i.e. ethnic-linguistic conditions or motivation of a geographical name.
A.P. Dulzon, who studied etymology of Siberian toponyms says that most of the Turkic
geographical names are of the Ket origin. For example, he believes that the second part of the
hydronym Yertis (Irtysh) tsis (Irtsis) appeared in the language in the ancient times, and is an
appellative «river» of the Ket language. This proposition of A.P. Dulzon lacks two pieces of
information:
1. Did the Ket tribes live on the territory of Kazakhstan?
2. What was the meaning of the first part of the toponym er/ ir in the Ket language?
We cannot treat the hydronym Irtysh as of the Ket origin without answering these two questions.
Many researchers do not pay enough attention to these questions and believe that the etymology is
connected with the popular opinion of M. Kashgari: Irtysh (Ertishmak) – «let‘s see who will cross it
faster», but this is almost the only evidence which can be used in determining etymology of the
word. Let us consider this opinion from the extra-linguistic point of view:
1) from the extra-linguistic (motivational) point of view the first problem of the river which heads
in the mountains and flows across the continent is the ford (oetkel). It was very difficult to cross a
high water river of a considerable width (120-150 m) riding a horse. It is no accident that «The
Mongols Chronicles» says that defeated by Genghis Khan troops of Kushilik sultan drowned in the
Irtysh river.
Study of the South Altai oronyms allows to single out two foreign layers in the language –
Mongolian and Russian. Whereas Turkic languages is a generally-accepted term, another correct
name for a grouping comprising the Turkic and Bulgаric languages could be Bulgaro-
Turkic because of the early separation of the Bulgaric branch from the rest of the stem;
consequently, Bulgaric and Turkic can rather be used as names of the two sibling taxons, even
though this usage is far less common. According to the present glottochronological study, the
Bulgaric languages apparently branched off from the Turkic languages at a rather early period of
time, most likely 1100-900 BC, which is considerably earlier than normally cited elsewhere. The
discrepancy can be attributed to the use of apparently incorrect Starostin's glottochronological
formulas in other studies, although the exact date cannot be calculated with precision due the
taxonomical uniqueness of Chuvash and possible lexicostatistical fluctuations.
The fact that despite
Kazakhstan and China are neighboring countries but there are no Chinese toponyms in the Kazakh
language testifies to the following: first, that Chinese and Turkic languages are not related; second,
Chinese people never lived on the Altai territories. Chinese names seldom occur on territories in the
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basin of the Black Irtysh river up to the Great Chinese Wall, to say nothing of Kazakhstan.
According to some scientists word formation in Kazakh language has also expressive and the
content plans of the derivative stem in Turkic languages, based on the Shor language, one of the
insufficiently studied Turkic languages of South Siberia. In this article the author also analyzed the
influence of the ground word on the lexical meaning of the derivative word formation and word
formation affix assign. So, in general we can say that the word-formation in toponyms depends on
not only the historical facts of the country, but also the geographical and linguistic connections
between different countries. Different languages, their linguistic elements affect to the formation of
place names.
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