Курс лекций по лексикологии английского языка для студентов факультетов иностранных языков

all the forms of this word and in all possible distributions of these forms. / Ginzburg 
R.S., Rayevskaya N.N. and others. 
2)The semantic invariant of the grammatical variation of a word / Nikitin M.V./. 
3)The material meaning of a word, i.e. the meaning of the main material part of the 
word which reflects the concept the given word expresses and the basic properties of 
the thing (phenomenon, quality, state, etc.) the word denotes. /Mednikova E.M./. 
Denotation. The conceptual content of a word is expressed in its denotative 
meaning. To denote is to serve as a linguistic expression for a concept or as a name 
for an individual object. It is the denotational meaning that makes communication 
possible. 
Connotation is the pragmatic communicative value the word receives 
depending on where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it 
may be used. There are four main types of connotations stylistic, emotional, 
evaluative and expressive or intensifying. 
Stylistic connotations is what the word conveys about the speaker's attitude to 
the social circumstances and the appropriate functional style (slay vs kill), evaluative 
connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the object spoken of (clique vs 
group), emotional connotation conveys the speaker's emotions (mummy vs mother), 
the degree of intensity (adore vs love) is conveyed by expressive or intensifying 
connotation. 
The interdependence of connotations with denotative meaning is also different 
for different types of connotations. Thus, for instance, emotional connotation comes 
into being on the basis of denotative meaning but in the course of time may substitute 
it by other types of connotation with general emphasis, evaluation and colloquial 
stylistic overtone. E.g. terrific which originally meant 'frightening' is now a 
colloquialism meaning 'very, very good' or 'very great': terrific beauty, terrific 
pleasure. 

The orientation toward the subject-matter, characteristic of the denotative 
meaning, is substituted here by pragmatic orientation toward speaker and listener; it is 
not so much what is spoken about as the attitude to it that matters. 
Fulfilling the significative and the communicative functions of the word the 
denotative meaning is present in every word and may be regarded as the central factor 
in the functioning of language. 
The expressive function of the language (the speaker's feelings) and the 
pragmatic function (the effect of words upon listeners) are rendered in connotations. 
Unlike the denotative meaning, connotations are optional. 
Connotation differs from the implicational meaning of the word. Implicational 
meaning is the implied information associated with the word, with what the speakers 
know about the referent. A wolf is known to be greedy and cruel (implicational 
meaning) but the denotative meaning of this word does not include these features. The 
denotative or the intentional meaning of the word wolf is "a wild animal resembling a 
dog that kills sheep and sometimes even attacks men". Its figurative meaning is 
derived from implied information, from what we know about wolves - "a cruel greedy 
person", also the adjective wolfish means "greedy". 
Polysemy is very characteristic of the English vocabulary due to the 
monosyllabic character of English words and the predominance of root words. The 
greater the frequency of the word, the greater the number of meanings that constitute 
its semantic structure. A special formula known as "Zipf's law" has been worked out 
to express the correlation between frequency, word length and polysemy: the shorter 
the word, the higher its frequency of use; the higher the frequency, the wider its 
combinability , i.e. the more word combinations it enters; the wider its combinability, 
the more meanings are realised in these contexts. 
The word in one of its meanings is termed as lexico-semantic variant of this 
word. For example the word table has at least 9 lexico-semantic variants: 1. a piece of 
furniture; 2. the persons seated at a table; 3. sing. the food put on a table, meals; 4. a 

thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.; 5. pl. slabs of stone; 6. words cut into them 
or written on them (the ten tables); 7. an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.; 8. 
part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on; 9. a level area, a 
plateau. 
The problem in polysemy is that of interrelation of different lexico-semantic 
variants. There may be no single semantic component common to all lexico-semantic 
variants but every variant has something in common with at least one of the others. 
All lexico-semantic variants of a word taken together form its semantic 
structure or semantic paradigm. The word face, for example, according to the 
dictionary data has the following semantic structure: 
1.The front part of the head: He fell on his face, 
2.Look, expression: a sad face, smiling faces, she is a good judge of faces. 
3.Surface, facade: face of a clock, face of a building, He laid his cards face down. 
4.fig. Impudence, boldness, courage; put a good/brave/ boldface on smth, put a new 

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