Table 1. Classifying criteria for mental disorders
By the nature of occurrence
By the nature of mental changes
By the prevalence of mental
disorders
constitutional
(congenital)
true abnormalities
(such as psychopathy);
intellectual
acquired
pseudo-anomalies
(i.e. arising from other mental
disorders).
strong-willed
emotional
We will try to break down the above groups of mental abnormalities and characterize them according to the
principle of their prevalence in psychiatric practice. However, when classifying and analyzing mental anomalies, we are
forced to talk about them in a broad sense of the word, which essentially coincides with the concept of mental disorders,
since individual chronic mental disorders will also be analyzed, in which a person can still be recognized as having limited
sanity. In this case, we mean such mental disorders as schizophrenia, epilepsy, etc.
Alcoholism is a growing disease characterized by a pathological craving for alcoholic beverages. Alcoholism is
extremely dangerous in terms of social consequences and, unfortunately, one of the most common types of mental
abnormalities. The systematic consumption of alcoholic beverages causes a gradual restructuring of the body.
Approximately 5-7 years after the beginning of the systematic consumption of alcoholic beverages, especially strong
ones, control over the amount drunk begins to be lost and the body requires more and more doses of alcohol intoxication
[6, p. 239].
Alcoholism and crime have a beneficial effect on each other. Alcoholism is an important condition contributing
to crime, and vice versa, crime provokes alcoholism. Persons leading an antisocial lifestyle for a long time and committing
crimes, in most cases, abuse alcohol, which is especially characteristic of repeat offenders. The prevention of alcoholism
is of great importance in the fight against crime, and especially in the prevention of that part of it, in the determination of
which alcohol intoxication is of decisive importance - the majority of violent crimes; hooliganism, etc.
In order to stop alcoholism as a disease, it is necessary to completely stop drinking any alcoholic beverages.
However, the altered reaction of the body to the action of alcohol does not disappear even with prolonged and complete
abstinence. As psychiatrists say, "an alcoholic once - an alcoholic always." Facts are known when the accidental use of
alcohol after 7-15 years from the beginning of the cessation of use led to binges, and sometimes completely unexpected
637
for the person himself, it would seem, had long been rid of the disease and had time to forget about it. Chronic alcohol
intoxication leads to the phenomena of the so-called alcoholic encephalopathy. Over time, the signs of encephalopathy
become more and more distinct, sometimes turning into a picture of severe dementia.
Schizophrenia is a progressive (growing) disease characterized by gradually increasing personality changes
(autism, emotional impoverishment, the appearance of oddities) and productive psychopathological manifestations of
different severity and severity (affective, delusional, hallucinatory).
The most severe forms of schizophrenia are found to a greater extent in men, less progressive - in women.
Schizophrenia, which manifests itself in adolescence, is more malignant than in adults. If there are schizophrenic patients
in the family, it is not at all necessary that all descendants will have to suffer. So, Y. Polischuk points out that “responsible
genes can remain idle throughout their lives. They are activated, as a rule, after emotional upheavals associated with
family or personal life, after the collapse of hopes and disappointments. Most often, the disease begins in adolescence or
adolescence. Due to serious hormonal processes, the psyche becomes especially vulnerable, turning even a trifling event
into a tragedy of enormous scale. "
With continuously flowing schizophrenia, there is a gradual increase in painful manifestations. With sluggish
schizophrenia, the development of the process for a long time does not lead to gross personality changes and pronounced
violations of social adaptation. Malignant schizophrenia, beginning in childhood and adolescence, is characterized by
early manifestation of negative changes, complication of the clinical picture due to the appearance of delusional disorders.
There is a rapid development of the disease, already after 1-4 years ending in the final state with a gross emotional defect.
The second form of schizophrenia is characterized by seizures separated by remissions: during remission,
progressive personality changes are clearly visible.
Recurrent (periodic) schizophrenia is characterized by recurrent attacks, which lead to gross negative changes
and are replaced by deep remissions. The most characteristic are depressive-paranoid attacks with delusions of
condemnation, staging, etc. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is facilitated by the presence of gradually increasing
personality changes, as well as impaired thinking, the phenomenon of mental automatism. Treatment of schizophrenia
depends on the clinical picture, course, stage of the disease. In severe psychotic conditions that disrupt the adaptation of
patients and require hospitalization, psychotropic drugs are used, as well as shock treatment methods. In cases where the
development of the disease is in the early stages, drug treatment is carried out in combination with psychotherapy and
occupational therapy.
For more than half a century, the question of the sanity of patients with schizophrenia has periodically become
the subject of discussions among domestic and foreign psychiatrists. In 1938, two works devoted to this issue were
published in the former USSR. The author of one of them, D. Amenitsky, considers the degree of preservation of the
personality, its active adaptation to life and work, the establishment of certain social ties with appropriate compensation
for mental defects as criteria that allow judging the sanity-insanity in schizophrenia. The author of another work, A.
Khaletsky, proposed to consider the signs of personality unity, the safety of the motivation of actions (clarity of the
motives of the crime, a relatively correct understanding of one's illness, an active line of social structure) as criteria for
sanity in schizophrenia. In recent decades, the issue of sanity in schizophrenia has received particular attention. This is
due to the outlined increase in the number of cases of sluggish schizophrenia [7, p. 33].
In the overwhelming majority of cases, patients with schizophrenia are recognized as insane, tk. the development
of the disease, especially its pronounced forms, leads to the loss of previous social ties, a decrease in mental activity. In
our case, the isolation of schizophrenia as a separate mental anomaly is due to those cases when the characteristic
symptomatology of schizophrenia has not reached a high degree of severity, therefore, in these cases, sanity is not
excluded. Although for a number of signs it (sanity) cannot be called complete. Therefore, we can only talk about limited
sanity. Let us give a typical example of this kind [8].
Experts say that there is a connection between the date of birth of a person and the likelihood of developing a
number of diseases in him. Those born in January, February and March are 10% more likely to become schizophrenic
than those born in summer and autumn. And those born in May most often suffer from seasonal depression. The main
risk factors for schizophrenia, according to experts, are: small growth at birth (up to 49 centimeters) and thinness in the
period up to 7 years. In these children, the risk of schizophrenia increases fourfold [9,10].
Epilepsy is a chronic disease of the brain, characterized by convulsive and non-convulsive disorders (seizures),
typical personality changes, often severe dementia and the possibility of developing acute and protracted psychoses in the
late stages of the disease [11]. Epilepsy is based on increased neuronal activity. The name of the disease "epilepsia" comes
from the Greek word for "suddenly fall," to be seized unexpectedly. If we touch a little on the history of the doctrine of
epilepsy, then it goes back to the distant past. This disease has been known since ancient Egypt. Hippocrates suggested a
connection between epilepsy and brain damage and objected to the then widespread opinion about the role of mysterious
forces in the origin of the disease. The English neuropathologist J.H. Jackson made a great contribution to the theory of
epilepsy. He differentiated convulsive and non-convulsive paroxysms of epileptic disease and epileptiform seizures in
various organic brain lesions [12, 13].
Some scientists question the possibility of recognizing a person with limited sanity in relation to the act
incriminated to him in the event that this person is diagnosed with epilepsy. However, forensic psychiatric practice refutes
such claims [14]. So, in particular, this can be evidenced by the following example from the archives of the Republican
Psychiatric Dispensary, confirming this possibility [15].
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With regard to the prevalence of this disease, we note that the most common epileptic seizures occur in childhood.
Seizures in children are characterized not only by a high frequency, but also by a greater degree of severity. It is during
the period of brain development that seizures can lead to secondary changes on the part of the child's psyche, therefore,
it is necessary to provide specialized in the early stages of the development of this disease [16, 17].
The causes of this disease, like many other mental disorders, are not fully understood. The reasons for the neural
activity of the brain are also not yet clear enough, but scientists presumably associate them with the structure of the brain
cell membrane, as well as the chemical characteristics of these cells. In about 70% of cases, the cause of seizures remains
unknown, despite a special neurological examination, since there are no obvious or suspected signs of an underlying brain
disease [18]. Depending on the age at which the seizures appeared, one or another reason should be assumed. If seizures
begin before age 20, the cause is most likely due to brain damage during pregnancy or childbirth; after 25 years - the
cause is usually brain tumors; in the elderly - circulatory disorders of the brain. Summing up, it is necessary to note the
factor of heredity of epilepsy. It is known that if one of the parents has epilepsy, then the probability of its occurrence in
a child is about 6%, that is, more than three times more than for most people. If both parents have epilepsy, the risk of
epilepsy in the child increases to 10-12%. Of course, the information is generalized and therefore in each specific case of
the incidence of this disease, an individual approach to the patient is needed [19].
Epilepsy is often associated with other medical conditions, such as alcoholism. Alcohol has a very detrimental
effect on epileptics. If there are patients in whom the abuse of alcoholic beverages does not affect the frequency of attacks,
then the overwhelming majority of paroxysms during drunkenness become more frequent. An alcoholic epileptic as a
patient is especially dangerous: he adds to the impulsive disorders caused by his underlying disease, those that are caused
by alcohol dependence [20].
It should be noted that theoretically, every person can have epileptic seizures: they appear as a result of electrical
discharges in the cells of the brain. It is known that many great people had epilepsy - these are Alexander the Great,
Caesar, Socrates, Peter the First, Dostoevsky, Nobel and others. However, this was not an obstacle to their social activities.
Epilepsy still occurs in many people today and does not interfere with their full and fruitful life. This requires regular
visits to the doctor and strict adherence to medical prescriptions [21, 22].
Oligophrenia (literally - dementia) - congenital or acquired (under the age of 3 years) mental underdevelopment
with a predominant lack of intellectual abilities. Oligophrenia can be a consequence of brain damage in the early stages
of its development.
According to the principle of the depth of mental underdevelopment, three degrees of severity of oligophrenia
are distinguished: idiocy, imbecility, debility. For the area of our research, related to the recognition of persons suffering
from mental disorders or mental abnormalities as having limited sanity, only such a form of oligophrenia as debility is of
certain interest, since in the other two cases a person can only be recognized as insane. Let us give on this occasion one
typical example concerning the recognition of a person suffering from oligophrenia in the form of debility as having
limited sanity [23].
Studies show that oligophrenics most often commit property crimes (mainly theft and robbery). In particular,
this is evidenced by the above example.
It should be noted that mental retardation is one of the most common mental abnormalities among persons subject
to art. 18
1
of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Debility is the mildest degree of dementia. Persons
suffering from debility usually graduate from an auxiliary school and are able to lead an independent life. In such persons,
a specifically descriptive type of thinking prevails, while the ability to abstract is almost absent. Some people suffering
from mental retardation with a delay in general mental development and a low level of thinking are even partially gifted
(for example, the ability to perform complex arithmetic operations in the mind) [24].
As for other forms of oligophrenia, it should be noted that idiocy is the deepest degree of oligophrenia,
characterized by an almost complete absence of speech and thinking [25]. Such persons do not have basic self-service
skills. Imbecility in severity of the consequence takes the middle line. Persons suffering from this form of mental
retardation, unlike those suffering from idiocy, are able to understand the speech of others, they themselves can pronounce
short phrases. Some imbeciles are capable of performing elementary counting operations, mastering the simplest self-
service skills [26].
With all the variety of clinical forms of oligophrenia, there are signs of mental underdevelopment common to all
patients. First, dementia encompasses not only the underdevelopment of the cognitive process, but also the personality as
a whole, i.e. perception, memory, attention, speech, emotions, will, intellect, etc. suffer. Secondly, the leading role in the
structure of a mental defect belongs to the lack of abstract thinking. Speech is notable for its poor vocabulary and illiteracy.
Attention and memory are generally weakened, patients have a reduced level of initiative, physical development is also
slow [27].
When diagnosing oligophrenia, problems of delimiting it from early-onset schizophrenia can cause problems.
Oligophrenia should also be distinguished from dementia - acquired dementia, in which relatively rich vocabulary and a
greater variety of emotional manifestations are revealed [28].
Prevention of some hereditary forms of oligophrenia begins during pregnancy: examination of pregnant women
for syphilis, prevention of rubella in pregnant women, qualified assistance during childbirth [29].
Psychopathy is an inadequate development of emotional-volitional traits of a person's character, largely
determined by innate inferiority of the nervous system. Psychopaths, first of all, are distinguished by the inadequacy of
emotional experiences, a tendency to depressive states.
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The term "psychopathy" was introduced by J. Koch. In his classification of borderline states, he identified, along
with other mental anomalies, variants of constitutional psychopathies that do not change throughout life. In Russian
psychiatry, the doctrine of psychopathic personalities has received significant development and has been singled out in a
separate category since the 80s of the nineteenth century. The impetus for the development of this concept was a series
of court cases in which prominent representatives of Russian psychiatry acted as experts.
Since the early 70s of the XX century, the concept of "psychopathy" in the psychiatric literature has gradually
been replaced by the concept of "personality disorder". This term, according to P.V. Shostakovich, more accurately
reflects the essence of mental disorders and is devoid of a socially negative sound.
As already noted, psychopathy is based on congenital inferiority of the nervous system, which can arise under
the influence of hereditary factors. Of considerable importance in the formation of psychopathy is the unfavorable
influence of the external environment, improper upbringing, mental trauma, the criminogenic behavior of parents, the
influence of a dysfunctional micro-social environment. Confirmation of this kind of views are the results of studies
showing the influence of negative factors of the social environment on the formation of a person's character, personality,
focus of interests and behavior. Let us give one typical example in this regard [30].
Representatives of European criminology believe that true psychopathies are constitutional in nature, i.e. is a
congenital anomaly. They develop between the ages of 5 and 20 and can be traced throughout life. Psychopathies, unlike
psychosis, are not progressive. But it must be borne in mind that this is a general position, and it does not mean that the
psychopathic personality is given already at the moment of birth and does not change during life.
Today, the most common classification of psychopathies is the following: asthenic type, psychasthenic, schizoid,
paranoid, excitable, hysterical, affective, unstable. However, one should not forget that in addition to the biological
division of psychopathies, they also use the sociological basis of their division, i.e. to a group of people who themselves
suffer from their abnormality, and those who make society suffer. It is important that the first group consists of people
who themselves go to doctors and seek their help, the second, on the contrary, go to doctors most often at the request of
the judicial authorities. The second group is united by the fact that they always reveal certain moral defects [31].
As for the treatment of psychopathy, there is no need to talk about drug therapy in this area. Psychotherapy is
directed mainly against abnormal reactions to living conditions arising from psychopathy. The most effective is, of course,
correct upbringing in the early stages of a child's development. At a later age, living conditions, environment, social
atmosphere, etc. become important.
Addiction (from the Greek word narco - numbness, sleepiness, numbness, mania - passion) is a group of diseases
caused by systematic drug use and manifested by the syndrome of altered reactivity, mental and physical dependence, as
well as some other mental and social phenomena. With the cessation of drug use, withdrawal symptoms occur, which is
an objective sign of drug addiction. The development of the process of drug addiction is more pernicious and catastrophic
than, for example, with alcoholism. Drug addiction can often be observed in people with chronic diseases who, for medical
reasons, are prescribed narcotic drugs (most often these are painkillers). The spread of drug addiction, as a rule, leads to
an increase in the number of crimes committed.
Drug addiction is a serious ailment that is extremely difficult to deal with, since the drug becomes part of the
biochemical processes of the body, especially the brain. Drug addiction is a disease that develops with the use of drugs.
Its peculiarity is that the physical and mental state of a person, his state of health is in constant dependence on the use of
drugs, its presence or absence in the body. The patient is forced to periodically take the drug, otherwise he has a painful
condition with pain, convulsions, etc. The drug damages almost all organs and cells. Drugs are substances that have a
special effect on the nervous system, the entire human body, and, above all, on his mental state, consciousness, mood
[32].
The growing number of drug addicts is becoming one of the most serious social problems of our time. It is of
great concern that drug addiction affects mainly young people. The prevalence of this disease in the country is well known.
The human body is practically defenseless against the toxic effects of drugs. Their danger is that the pathological
conditions they cause are, to a certain extent, irreversible and some of the negative changes occurring in the body remain
forever. Addiction creates psychological and physical dependence. With physical dependence, the drug becomes a
necessary substance to maintain the vital functions of the body. Otherwise, withdrawal syndrome ("withdrawal") occurs.
Psychological addiction is an uncontrollable craving for drug use.
Naturally, compulsory drug addiction treatment was applied along with punishment only in relation to persons
who committed a crime. The purpose of applying this measure is to try to heal a person suffering from drug addiction or
improve his mental state, as well as to prevent him from committing new crimes.
Drug addicts can commit a crime in a state of limited sanity. Then the court can prescribe compulsory treatment,
based on the requirements of part 2 of art. 18
1
of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
It is impossible to unequivocally answer the question of how effective compulsory drug addiction treatment is.
Here a lot depends on the patient's desire. So, if he has set a goal to stop using drugs, any treatment will help, if not, then
even the most modern methods will be ineffective, not to mention the compulsory treatment that is carried out in state
medical institutions.
Psychogenia - (from the Greek psyche - soul and gemao - I generate) - mental disorders arising under the
influence of mental trauma. Psychogenias can occur as a result of a one-time, intensely influencing psycho-traumatic
situation or can be the result of a relatively weak but prolonged trauma. Unlike other mental disorders, psychogenia is not
pathological in nature, it is a temporary and reversible mental disorder. In the emergence of psychogenias, a certain
640
readiness for a "mental breakdown" plays an essential role, which develops against the background of the weakening of
the body after an illness, prolonged nervous tension, and specific features of the nervous system. Thus, it is characteristic
for psychogenias that they:
develop in connection with mental trauma;
mental trauma is directly reflected in painful experiences;
the condition stops after the elimination of the mental trauma that caused it.
Since there is no single qualification of psychogenias today, we will use the concepts that are best known to
psychiatric science. Most often, psychogenias are divided into two large groups:
neuroses;
reactive states.
Neuroses are characterized by the fact that they arise under the influence of a long-term traumatic situation, most
often in persons with an unstable nervous system. The previous reason is the exhaustion of the body and the nervous
system as a result of infection, intoxication, and overwork.
Neurasthenia, psychasthenia, hysterical neurosis belong to neuroses.
Neurasthenia is expressed in increased irritability, emotional instability, absent-mindedness. Psychasthenia is
characterized by obsessions, fears (for example, fear of heights, sharp objects), etc.
With hysterical neurosis, hysterical seizures, skin sensitivity disorders, temporary loss of speech, etc. are most
often observed.
The forensic psychiatric significance of neuroses is small, since its presence in any degree of development does
not lead to insanity, fully retains the ability to be a subject of criminal law and criminal procedural legal relations.
Reactive states are temporary and reversible mental disorders that arise as a result of mental trauma. With a great
force of mental trauma, such a state can occur in any person. Most often, reactive states occur.
The residual effects of craniocerebral trauma include signs of traumatic asthenia - symptoms of irritability and
exhaustion. Headaches, absent-mindedness, forgetfulness appear. With traumatic brain injuries of mild to moderate
severity, especially those received in adolescence and adolescence, these disorders develop quickly and are marked by
resistance. Sharp changes in mood are characteristic
Vascular diseases - a group of diseases that include various non-psychotic disorders based on vascular pathology
of the brain (atherosclerosis, hypertension), as well as in vascular diseases of non-cerebral localization (myocardial
infarction).
Modern medicine has proven that the cause of atherosclerosis is an excess of free radicals. They destroy the
vascular system. At the site of damage, choleiteria is deposited, an atherosclerotic plaque is formed, the vascular wall
becomes less elastic, blood flow is impeded, and as a result, the nutrition of brain cells noticeably worsens. In turn, the
deterioration of blood flow in the vessels of the brain can lead to a stroke.
Atherosclerosis, as a rule, affects large and medium-sized vessels, and with hypertension, small vessels -
arterioles and capillaries - suffer, their wall thickens, loses its elasticity, nutrients and oxygen poorly penetrate the brain
cells.
Atherosclerosis and hypertension are not the only diseases that damage the blood vessels in the brain. In diabetes,
as a rule, damage to the vessels of the brain also occurs. With the development of vascular disease in elderly people, first
of all, asthenic components of character - indecision, self-doubt, etc., increase.
For the treatment of vascular diseases of the brain, neotrons are used - drugs that improve metabolic processes
in the brain tissue, as well as vascular agents, antiplatelet agents, pressure regulating agents, vitamins, antioxidants,
antidepressants.
All these mountains of drugs at risk are replaced by ozone, which can be used both for treatment and for the
prevention of cerebrovascular lesions, as well as for rehabilitation.
Concluding this question, it should be noted that the above classification of mental disorders is summed up under
the criterion common for all disorders - mental disorders of a non-psychotic nature.
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