6
through the changes in flint implements, the earliest of all found in the Oldu-
vai Valley Gorge in Tanzania.
These tools are roughly made, but they show a
clear understanding of the
nature of the substance from which they are formed, and of the way in which
it can be shaped by flaking. There is a narrow range of types – hand-axes,
scrapers and pounders – but each type is already adapted to do a different job.
In fact, the whole of industrial design is already there in embryo.
More sophisticated flint tools show unsurpassed elegance and control of
form. Standardization and even a kind of industrial production were under-
stood by the civilizations of the Ancient World, and particularly by the Ro-
mans. Much Greek and Roman pottery was made by methods which are recog-
nizably industrial, and which must have involved the intervention of a de-
signer. The Greek potters working in Athens are now chiefly celebrated for
the red-figure and black-figure decoration which appears on their best wares,
and which now supplies evidence about Greek painting of the Archaic and
Classical periods.
A more complex example of standardization is Roman weaponry. Rome
relied
on the power of her armies, and her soldiers were outfitted to
a series
of standard patterns. The magnificent Praetorian Guard did not wear outfits
chosen according to their own fancy, but were equipped with identical
shields, helmets and swords. Uniformity of weapons and equipment was es-
sential to Roman military tactics, which assumed that a large body of men
could be deployed as a single mass.
It is particularly interesting to examine the
European Middle Ages for
evidence of proto-industrial thinking. The medieval maker was, perfectly ca-
pable of the kind of structural logic, economy and ingenuity which we now
expect from the best post-Bauhaus furniture designers. Among the Greeks
and Romans, there existed a high degree of standardization. Many of the Eng-
lish imperial measures were already fixed at this period, for example, the Eng-
lish foot wаs exactly the one now in use, giving three feet to a yard, six to a
fathom, and 16 to a rod, pole or perch. Naturally this affected the shapes and
proportions of buildings and the sizes of many standard household articles.
The tile industry was even more highly organized than the potteries.
Medieval artisans,
like the Roman potters, knew the convenience of the
casting process when it came to making things in series and at the same time re-
peating the form exactly, and moulds for making all kinds of objects have sur-
vived, among them the mould for making seals. In a society which was still
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