MAIN PART
The emergence of these approaches is associ-
ated with the development of social thought and
science in the course of history. There are three
main stages in the evolution of ideas about health:
antiquity, the beginning of the XIX century, and the
XX century. This is due to the fact that during these
periods, the development of the scientific world-
view was influenced by actively developing Scienc-
es: philosophy, natural science disciplines. The se-
lected stages correspond to the point of view of O.
S. Vasilieva and F. R. Filatov, who identified three
main standards of health that have developed in
science: ancient, adaptive, and anthropocentric (O.
S. Vasilieva, F. R. Filatov, 2001).
The first stage is connected with the ancient pe-
riod in history. In ancient Greece, there was a cult
of a healthy body and spirit. At the beginning of the
fifth century BC, Alcmaeon defined health as a har-
mony or balance of oppositely directed forces. Ac-
cording to Plato, «health, like beauty, is determined
by proportionality, requires «the agreement of op-
posites» and is expressed in a proportionate ratio
of the soul and body» [Никифоров Г. С., 2002].
Health, in the ancient sense, is associated pri-
marily with the internal structure of a person and
much less affects the system of his relations with
the surrounding world. Health is also described as
harmony and proportionality, the optimal balance
of body and spirit, and the balance of opposing
forces. Be healthy, from the point of view of the an-
tique. For example, it means to follow one’s own
nature and the General nature of things [Ананьев
В. А., 2000].
Currently, these provisions are reflected in mod-
ern definitions of mental health.
Thus, N. G. Garanyan and A. B. Kholmogorova
point out that «mental health is a balance of vari-
ous mental properties and processes (the balance
between the ability to give and take from another,
to be one and be among people, love for oneself
and love for others, etc.) [Бовина И. Б., 2007].
The ideas of ancient philosophy about the in-
tegrity of the soul and body are the basis of a holis-
tic approach to the definition of health. The holistic
approach is based on the General philosophical
idea of holism – the indivisible integrity of human
existence. In this approach, health is defined as the
integrity acquired by an individual in the process of
its formation, which implies personal maturity (G.
Allport, E. Erickson) and reconciliation, synthesis of
fundamental contradictions of human existence or
intrapsychic polarities (K. G. Jung). In other words,
it means a certain level of integrated personality
(K. G. Jung, G. Allport, S. Grof) or the ability to in-
tegrate (assimilate) life experience (K. Rogers). The
integrative processes of a healthy psyche are the
opposite of the disintegration and splitting charac-
teristic of psychopathology.
Further development of the doctrine of health in
philosophy continued in the Modern period. Men-
tal health was defined through reasonable self-con-
trol, the basis of which is a harmonious integral de-
velopment. R. Descartes describes the health of the
soul through the ability to know the truth. Within
the framework of the philosophy, works devoted
to the consideration of socio-cultural determinants
of health are presented [Васильева О. С., 2001].
When analyzing the scientific literature, we came
to the conclusion that today the phenomenon of
health is not represented in the spectrum of cur-
rent philosophical problems. This is most likely due
to the fact that health in General and mental health
in particular have become the subject of research
in other Sciences, such as medicine and psycholo-
gy. However, modern researchers of health issues
rely on the huge contribution that philosophy has
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made to understand this problem. The main merit
of the philosophy of the ancient period, according
to A. A. This is because for the first time health was
considered not only in its bodily (somatic) mean-
ing, but also in its mental (psychic) meaning (A. A.
pecherkina, 2005). Thus, it is to the ancient period
that the first mention of mental health is made.
The second stage corresponds to the beginning
of the XIX century. This period was marked by the
active development of natural science disciplines,
especially biology and physiology. The research-
ers focused on the process of interaction between
an individual and his environment.the concept of
“health” was defined through the process of hu-
man adaptation. According to O. S. Vasilieva and
F. R. Filatov, this period is associated with the for-
mation and development of an adaptive model of
a healthy personality (O. S. Vasilieva, F. R. Filatov,
2001). Moreover, during this period, health was
practically identified with normality.
Since then, evolutionist, normocentric, so-
cially-oriented, and cross-cultural approaches to
health have been developed. Within the framework
of the evolutionist approach, health is considered
as a fundamental problem of adaptation of man-
kind to the environment (K. Lorenz, V. I. Vernadsky,
V. p. Kaznacheev, E. A. Spirkin, etc.). Various aspects
of mental life are studied on a population scale,
since it is no longer a separate individual, but hu-
manity as an evolving species, inseparable from the
organic unity of life. The main criterion for health is
human productivity, the degree of involvement in
the global processes of natural environment devel-
opment, and the individual level of health is added
to the population and planetary level.
In science, the system approach is understood as
a methodological direction, one of the main tasks
of which is to develop and apply research methods
for complex and developing objects – systems.
The description of the system, from the point
of view of V. A. Hansen, should include: its elemen-
tal composition, structures, or subsystems formed
by these elements, the functions of the system,
its subsystems and elements, the integral prop-
erties of the system, system-forming factors, and
relationships with the environment (V. A. Hansen,
1984).
During the analysis of the object of research
in the framework of a systematic approach, it be-
comes necessary to determine its category: pro-
cess, property, state. Mental processes emphasize
the dynamic aspects of the psyche. The concept of
«mental state» is used for conditional allocation
in the individual’s psyche of a relatively static mo-
ment. As Yu. b. Nekrasova emphasizes, according
to the parameters «long-term – situativeness» and
«variability-constancy», mental States are located
between mental processes and stable personality
and character traits (Yu.b. Nekrasova, 2001). The
mental property indicates the stability of the mani-
festations of the individual’s psyche, their fixity and
repeatability in the structure of his personality.
Health is formed in the process of human de-
velopment as an individual, a person, a subject of
activity. For example, psychological health acts as
a certain level of personal development. A healthy
person is characterized by integrity, balance, the
ability to adapt to changing conditions, and self-re-
alization. Therefore, health is not a process, but it
has dynamic characteristics.
Manifestations and characteristics of a healthy
personality will differ in different age periods. Un-
der the influence of external or internal factors,
health can be lost or achieved.
Thus, health can not be clearly attributed to
mental properties. As a result, it is appropriate to
consider health in the context of mental States.
Mental States are a multi-level system.
According to the definition of N. G. Levitov, it
is «an integral characteristic of mental activity for
a certain period of time, showing the originality of
the ongoing mental processes depending on the
reflected objects and phenomena, previous States
and properties of the person» [Никифорова Г. С.,
2006].
Actual mental state, according to V. A. Hansen,
is characterized by a set of values of parameters of
simultaneously occurring mental processes, in re-
lation to which the actual state is the background.
The set of personality properties that determine its
profile, in turn, represents the relief that determines
the originality of the implementation of the actual
state in this person. Therefore, the actual mental
state plays the role of a connecting link between
mental processes and properties (V. A. Hansen,
1984).
It is emphasized that there are complex dialecti-
cal relationships between processes and States, on
the one hand, and between States and personality
properties, on the other. According to the point of
view of V. A. Hansen, mental processes, under cer-
tain conditions, can be considered as States, and
often repeated States contribute to the develop-
ment of the corresponding properties of the per-
sonality (V. A. Hansen, 1984).
So, the division of mental phenomena into pro-
cesses, States, and properties is mainly based on
the time parameter. Taking into account all the
above, the problem of assigning health to a par-
ticular category can be solved from the position of
chronological approach (E. F. Rybalko, 1990).
Within the framework of the microchronological
approach, health can act as a state or as a process.
When considering the features of human develop-
ment at a certain stage of ontogenesis, health will
act as an actual mental state. Therefore, health can
be defined as a multidimensional dynamic state
that reflects the level of functioning and realization
of a person as a whole at a certain stage of devel-
opment.
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Within the framework of the macro-chronolog-
ical approach, health can act as a process or as a
property. It is known that in the course of ontogen-
esis there is a gradual development of structural
components of the child’s personality, including
health. Accordingly, health at the early stages of
ontogenesis acts as a characteristic, as well as a
condition of the development process, and later
becomes a property of the individual. This aspect
of consideration is presented, for example, in the
framework of the theory of G. Allport, who «under-
stood health as the integrity acquired by an indi-
vidual in the process of his formation, which implies
personal maturity» [Хьелл Л., 2006].
Thus, the theoretical and methodological works
of psychologists present various aspects of the
consideration of health as a subject in psychology.
In the process of supporting the process of ad-
aptation and development, a practical psychologist
analyzes the current state of a person at the time
of examination. Health, including psychological
health, is a characteristic of the processes of ad-
aptation and personal development. Accordingly,
when studying the concept of «health», it is neces-
sary to rely on the position that the phenomenon in
question belongs to the category of mental States.
When describing a concept within a particular
category, it is necessary to take into account the
features and characteristics of a mental phenom-
enon that can act as signs. Since we have defined
health as a dynamic state, the signs must corre-
spond to the characteristics of the mental state.
The human condition, according to V. A. Gan-
zen’s point of view, is a complex, integral, poly-
functional and polystructural phenomenon (V. A.
Ganzen, 1984). In the works of V. A. Ganzen, V. N.
Yurchenko, Yu. E. Sosnovikova, L. V. Kulikov and oth-
er scientists, the internal structure of mental States
is described [Mental health: facing the challenges,
building solutions: report from the WHO European
Ministerial Conference, 2005].
According To V. A. Ganzen, there are three sub-
structures in the General structure of human men-
tal States. The first substructure, hierarchical, is
formed by the characteristics of each of the four
main levels of state organization: physiological,
psychophysiological, psychological, and socio-psy-
chological.
The second substructure, coordination, reveals
the presence in each of the States of subjective
(experiences of the person) and objective (data of
the researcher or observer) sides. Three groups
of characteristics form the third substructure of
States: General, special, and individual, which are
related to each other in relation to inclusion (V. A.
Hansen, 2001).
Personality is a complex dynamic formation.
In Russian psychology, it is customary to consider
personal development as a complex, step-by-step
process that is characterized by stable and critical
periods. Features of personality formation at a par-
ticular stage are reflected in the characteristics of
psychological health.
Thus, when studying the psychological health
of an individual, the question arises of identifying
constant, invariant, stable and variable indicators of
psychological health, both within stable stages of
development and during critical periods of devel-
opment.
So, youth period of development, formed main-
ly of the components of the personality structure,
which is characterized by certain stability, adoles-
cence is a critical period of development, which ac-
tively develops its self-concept of personality and
personality structure dynamic.
This emphasizes the importance of age as a de-
terminant of the state of psychological health of
the individual. Our study of psychological health of
the individual, in our opinion, will allow us to identi-
fy its invariant, stable and variable indicators in the
structure of the personality in the context of age
variability and individual identity.
In psychological science, the rise of research in-
terest in this area falls on the last decade of the XX
century.
Specific attempts to revise the theory of per-
sonality in the light of the latest concepts of mental
health are being made by major Russian scientists.
Among them we should mention such prominent
psychologists as B. S. Bratus, L. ya. Dorfman, E. R.
Kaliteevskaya, Yu. m. Orlov, D. A. Leontiev, V. A.
Ananyev, G. S. Nikiforov and others. In the works
of these researchers, the synthesis of natural-scien-
tific and humanitarian approaches to the problem
of mental health of the individual is outlined, the
values and life-meaning orientations, spiritual and
moral dimensions of a person as determinants of
their well-being are investigated [Дубровина И. В.,
2009].
It’s safe to say that the whole history of mankind
is inevitably linked to the emergence, spread and
disappearance of different diseases; however, how
society was formed and transformed ideas about
«health» and «disease» are getting more and more
prominent socio-cultural outline; how evolved and
changed the views of patients themselves, as well
as relations and ways of interacting with them. Peo-
ple have always sought to understand the disease,
identify the causes and determine its significance,
and seek ways to protect themselves from it using
a variety of means [Дубровина И. В., 2009].
Let’s analyze in historical perspective how the
concepts of health and disease were formed in for-
eign psychology. One of the outstanding scientists
of the XIX century – William James (1842-1910),
paid great attention to the problems of personality,
understanding it as an integrative whole, which was
fundamentally new at that time.
He distinguished the knowable and know-
er elements in the personality, believing that the
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knowable element is our experiential Self, which we
are aware of as our personality, while the knower
element is our pure Self. It was also important to
distinguish several parts in the structure of the ex-
periential personality – physical, social and spiritual
personality. James has worked on many issues,
from the study of the brain and the development
of cognitive processes and emotions, to personal-
ity problems and psychedelic research. Speaking
about human activity, the scientist stressed that
the psyche helps in his practical activities, optimiz-
es the process of social adaptation, and increases
the chances of success in any activity.
Seeking to interpret the psyche in the unity of
its external and internal manifestations, James pro-
posed a theory of emotions, according to which
the emotional States experienced by the subject,
such as fear or joy, are the effect of physiological
changes in the muscular and vascular systems.
Thus, peripheral organic changes, which were
usually considered to be the result of emotions,
were declared to be their cause. This theory is an
attempt to turn emotions into an object accessi-
ble to natural science study. However, by associ-
ating emotions exclusively with bodily changes, it
made them irrelevant to needs and motives, which
deprived them of adaptive meaning. Of great im-
portance was the description by V. James of the
feelings and emotions that cause different struc-
tures and parts of the personality – first of all, the
description of self-esteem, the role of which was
first mentioned by him. James deduced the formula
for self-esteem, which is a fraction with success in
the numerator and pretensions in the denominator.
This formula is the basis of the hierarchy of indi-
viduals, their desire for self-improvement and suc-
cess, their diseases and neuroses, their self-evalua-
tion and the emotions they experience. The French
psychologist, the founder of the concept of «natural
experiment» in French psychology, Theodule Armand
Ribot (1839-1916) in his works formulated the project
of psychology as an empirical science that uses the
data of mental pathology to study the norm. The idea
of a «natural experiment», or «experiment set by na-
ture», was inspired by the works of C. Bernard.
It became specific to the French psychology of
the late XIX – early XX century.
Such psychologists as P. Janet, J. Dumas, S. Blon-
del, A. Wallon, D. lagache, and others used the Clin-
ical method in its theoretical work. Mental illness,
or hypnosis, was considered as an experiment
more valid, reliable and representative (especially
for the study of higher mental functions) than the
psychophysical experiment that was emerging in
Germany at that time (G. Fechner, G. Helmholtz, V.
Wundt), which, according to the proponents of the
clinical paradigm, made it possible to study only
the lower processes of sensation and memory. A
follower of G. Spencer, T. A. Ribot was inspired by
the idea of evolution (which he mixed with ideas of
development and progress) and believed that psy-
chology could no longer remain the science of an
adult, white, educated person.
Renanom proposed as the object of the new
psychology the triad “mentally ill, savage, child”.
T. A. Ribot believed that “painful disorders of the
body, abnormalities, psychological monsters” are
more valuable for studying the norm, the more rare
they are. He wrote books on memory disease, will
disease, and personality disease, in which the sci-
entist sought to implement his program, drawing
on the extensive material collected by psychiath
Rami on psychological pathology.
Let’s turn to Freud’s psychodynamic theory of
personality. As a rule, in modern science, consid-
eration of the evolution of foreign theories of per-
sonality begins with psychoanalysis. In the works
of its founder, Z. Freud (1856-1939), you can learn
more about the ill health of the individual than
about its health. The psychoanalytic theory of Z.
Freud is an example of a psychodynamic approach
to the study of human behavior.
With this approach, it is believed that the un-
conscious psychological conflicts control human
behavior. Sigmund Freud based his psychoanalyt-
ic concepts almost entirely on his extensive clini-
cal observations of neurotic patients, as well as on
psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis can be considered
as a cultural phenomenon, the purpose of which is
to help a person to overcome the conflicts gener-
ated by the collision of nature and culture within a
person. E. V. Sitnicka Freud and shows the way out
of this conflict.
The first is the improvement of culture in the
direction of easing the prohibitions on the satisfac-
tion of certain desires: the achievements of science
in the future will increase the power of man over
the forces of nature and facilitate the satisfaction of
human needs. The second is the enrichment of in-
dividuals in a healthy way of compensation through
the mechanism of sublimation, in other words, the
development of the ability to creative self-realiza-
tion in a socially acceptable form. The third is the
development of the human mind and the develop-
ment of scientific and practical ways to understand
and overcome psychological conflicts [Хусаинова
Р. М., 2006].
K. Jung (1875-1961) – the author of the analyti-
cal theory of personality put forward a hypothesis
about innate ideas or memories inherent in a per-
son («archetypes»), which determine the nature of
perceptions, experiences and reactions of a person
to certain events. Among introduced them to the
consideration of the archetypes of «self» is most
important. It represents the core, the center of the
personality structure, around which the integra-
tion of the inner spiritual world of a person takes
place. According to Jung, the acquisition of the self
through the process of self-realization is the main
goal of human life.
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Jung was the first personality theorist to argue
that in order to achieve mental health, a person’s
multidirectional tendencies must be integrated into
a coherent whole. When this happens, the person
feels unity, harmony and integrity, in other words,
he is mentally healthy.
This is one of the key provisions of the analytical
theory of personality has had a significant impact
on the formation of subsequent personal concepts,
including in the course of humanistic psychology
[Шувалов А., 2009].
The starting point in the work of A. Adler (1870-
1937) was his idea that any theory of personality
should have as its ultimate goal healthy human be-
havior. In the individual theory of personality creat-
ed by him, the determining role in human develop-
ment is assigned to social factors.
It treats a person as a whole, as a single and
self-organizing organism, whose entire behavior
unfolds in a social context. A person is included in
society, and social determinants play a decisive role
in the organization of his life. At the same time, the
leading feature of a person is free, conscious activi-
ty. The fundamental role in Adler’s concept is given
to social interest as an important criterion of an in-
dividual’s mental health, as one of the main criteria
for psychological maturity.
Social interest means that a normal, healthy
person is genuinely concerned about others (as
opposed to being egocentric), is open to collabo-
ration and interaction with others, and is driven by
a sense of empathy for humanity.
The greatest psychologists of the XX century-E.
Erickson (1902-1994) and E. Fromm (1900-1980)
tried to apply a humanistic approach within the
framework of adaptation theory.
In the works of these scientists, a well-defined
and theoretically justified transition to the human-
istic model of personality was outlined, which pre-
vailed since the second half of the last century. E.
Erikson, considering the formation of a person as
a step-by-step process that includes certain stag-
es with their characteristic crises, clearly shows that
the logic of human development itself periodically
brings the individual to a choice between maturity,
health and regression; personal growth, self-deter-
mination and disease, neurosis.
From e’s point of view. According to Erickson, a
person who accepts a challenge during each psycho-
social crisis gets a chance to personal growth and
expansion of their capabilities. Having successfully
resolved one crisis, it moves on to the next. Success-
ful resolution of the next psychosocial crisis provides
the individual with more and more opportunities for
growth and self-realization [Demos E. V., 1995].
This indicates that the theory of E. Erickson as-
sumes the existence of an internal connection be-
tween personal growth and health, which means
that it is in tune with the basic principles of human-
istic psychology.
In turn, Erich Fromm at a certain stage of his sci-
entific career moved from the analysis of the condi-
tions and prerequisites of the socially defined infe-
riority of modern Western man, to the formulation
of the main provisions of the so-called normative
humanism. This is a teaching designed to reveal
the motivational and value bases of individual hu-
man existence, which are native and relatively inde-
pendent of the social structure.
Modern man faces the need for self-determi-
nation and choice of fundamental life orientations,
such as destructiveness or creativity, alienation or
spontaneity and fullness of experiences, narcissism
or a sense of fraternal community and love, con-
formity or uniqueness and creativity.
In addition, everyone must choose one of the
two polar modes of existence – the “mode of hav-
ing” and the “mode of being”.
G. Allport emphasized that research in this area
of psychology should be conducted on healthy, not
on sick people. «Some theories of development are
based mainly on the behavior of mentally ill and
anxious people, or on the antics of extreme lab-
oratory rats. Very few theories have been formed
based on the study of healthy human beings, such
as those who try not so much to save their lives
as to make it meaningful» [6, p. 290]. Unlike repre-
sentatives of psychoanalysis, he minimized the role
of the influence of the unconscious on the mental
health of an adult. He was of the opinion that a
healthy person is guided in his behavior by rational
motives, and this distinguishes him from neurotics
who live in accordance with the impulses of the un-
conscious. According to the time vector, a healthy
person lives not only in the past, but in the present
and future.
According to Allport, human development oc-
curs in conjunction with society. It is through so-
cial relations that the personal structure is formed
and filled with inner content. Allport believes that
human behavior is always the result of a particular
configuration of personality traits.
By trait, he meant a person’s predisposition to
behave similarly in a wide range of life situations.
The personality trait is the basis for stable and pre-
dictable behavior in relation to various, but equiv-
alent situations.
K. Rogers (1902-1987) is one of the most prom-
inent representatives of the humanistic trend in
foreign psychology. His creative achievements in
the field of psychotherapy and psychological coun-
seling had a powerful influence on the theoretical
and practical design of these sections of psychol-
ogy.
One of the main provisions of the theory of per-
sonality created by him is to emphasize the role of
self-determination, that is, the ability of a person,
due to his innate capabilities, to determine his own
fate and ultimately bear responsibility for what he
is. The phenomenon of the self (Self-concept) and
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related experiences occupy a priority place in the
theory of K. Rogers. Studying behavior, he strongly
adhered to a holistic approach to the person, as
the main and guiding motive considered self-ac-
tualization as a process of disclosure of a person’s
potential throughout life, its development in the
direction of increasing complexity, self-sufficiency,
maturity and competence. The first and indispen-
sable condition for the healthy development of
the individual K. Rogers considered uncondition-
al «positive attention» to the child, which implies
an unconditional display of love and acceptance of
it, especially in early childhood. This initial setting
does not mean that the parents.
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