ИННОВАЦИОННОЕ РАЗВИТИЕ АПК КАЗАХСТАНА: ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ
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работникам. По этим инфекциям отработана четкая система профилактических мероприятий,
позволившая хотя и не снизить, но стабилизировать заболеваемость на контролируемом уровне.
Эпизоотолого - эпидемиологической особенностью возбудителей указанных заболеваний
является изменение пейзажа циркулирующих Y. enterocolitica, снижение доли ранее доминировавших
серотипов и появление новых серо- и биотипов, ранее считавшихся непатогенными [17,с.35].
Обсеменение продуктов животного и растительного происхождения иерсиниями определяет их
значение как факторов дальнейшего распространения возбудителей при нарушении технологических
режимов на объектах питания и торговли.
В настоящее время ветеринарная практика не располагает достаточным количеством методов,
позволяющих эффективно диагностировать и профилактировать эту патологию. Разработка и
внедрение мероприятий по диагностике иерсиниоза, позволит ветеринарным специалистам более
адекватно оценивать этиологическую роль возбудителя инфекции, своевременно выявлять больных
животных и проводить целенаправленную терапию.
Принимая во внимание важность этого вопроса и дефицит подходящих решений, сотрудники
Костанайского государственного университета им. А. Байтурсынова, одни из немногих в Республике
Казахстан, работают над проектом разработки отечественной тест-системы на основе полимеразной
цепной реакции (ПЦР) в реальном времени для идентификации штаммов Yersiniа enterocolitica и
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.
Указанный проект в текущем учебном году вошел в число победителей конкурса по грантовому
финансированию научных исследований на 2015-2017 годы.
Согласно задачам проекта, нам необходимо выделить штаммы Yersinia enterocolitica и Yersinia
pseudotuberculosis и изучить их биологические свойства, а также провести мониторинг распространен-
ности иерсиниозов, подобрать праймеры и зонды, оптимизировать условия проведения ПЦР для
обнаружения ДНК Yersinia enterocolitica и Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.
Таким образом, можно заключить, что иерсиниозы, как инфекции с широкими возможностями
распространения, требуют особого внимания и настороженности медицинских и ветеринарных
работников.
Литература:
1 Кузнецов В.И. Дифференциально-диагностическая среда для выделения бактерий рода
Yersinia // Лабораторное дело. 1991. - № 3. - С. 77-78.
2 Бакулов И.А., Смирнов А.М., Васильев Д.А.. Токсикоинфекции и токсикозы, Учебное пособие.
Ульяновск: УГСХА, 2002 – 70 с.
Mollaret, H. H. Summary of the data received at the WHO Reference Center for Yersinia enterocolitica
/ H. H. Mollaret, H. Bercovier, J. M. Alonso // Contrib. Microbiol. Immunol. 1997. - V 5. - P. 174 - 84.
3
Черкасский Б.Л.,
Подунова
Л.Г.,
Акулова
Н.К.
Пищевые зоонозы саль-монеллез,
кампилобактериоз, иерсиниозы, листериоз: Матер. Международ, симпозиума. - М., 1995.-С. 18-19.
4 Frederiksen W. A study of some Yersinia pseudotuberculosis-like bacteria (Bacterium
enterocoliticum and «Pasteurella X») // Proc. of 14-th Scandinavica Congress on Pathology and
Microbiology. Oslo, 1964. - p. 103-104
5 Покровский В.И., Ющенко Г.В. Иерсиниоз: Метод, рекоменд. М., 1986. -29 с.
6 Куликовский, А. В. Иерсиниоз актуальная проблема ветеринарной медицины / А. В.
Куликовский, К. М. Джентимирова // Ветеринария. -1993.-№ 11-12.-С. 28-35.
7 Ващенок Г.И., Андрейчик Э.П., Ващенок B.C. Иерсиниозы в Ленинграде // Болезни с
природной очаговостью: Тр. НИИЭМим. Пастера. 1983. - Т. 60.-С. 82-87.
8 Christensen S.G. Yersinia enterocolitica in Danish pigs//J. Appl. Bact. 1980.-vol. 48.-N3.-p. 377-382.
9 Ващенок Г.И., Андрейчик Э.П., Ващенок B.C. Иерсиниозы в Ленинграде // Болезни с
природной очаговостью: Тр. НИИЭМ им. Пастера. 1983. - Т. 60.-С. 82-87.6
10 Ющенко Г.В. Псевдотуберкулез и иерсиниоз: эпидемиологические и экологические аспекты //
Инфекции, обусловленные иерсиниями: Тез. докл. междунар. конф. СПб., 2000. - С. 2.
11 Schiemann D.A. Association of Yersinia enterocolitica with the manufacture of cheese and
occurrence in pasteurized milk // Appl. Environm. Microbiol. -1978. vol. 36. - N 2. - p. 274-277.
12 Кузнецов В.Г. Адгезия и аутоадгезия иерсиний: выявление и роль в экологии // Инфекции,
обусловленные иерсиниями: Тез. докл. междунар. конф. -СПб., 2000.-С. 28.
13 Wauters, G. Carriage of Yersinia enterocolitica serotype 3 by pigs as a source of human infection /
G.Wauters // Contrib. Microbiol. Immunol. 1979. - V. 5. -P. 249-252.
14 Сомов, Г. П. Сапрофитизм и паразитизм патогенных бактерий: экологические аспекты / Г. П.
Сомов, В. Ю. Литвин. Новосибирск : Наука, 1998.-207 с.
15 Эпидемиология, лабораторная диагностика иерсиниозов, организация и проведение профи-
лактических и противоэпидемических мероприятий. Инструкция. Утв. Минздравом СССР 30.10.1990 г.
М., 1990. - 48 с.
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16 Степанов В.М. Зоонозные инфекции в Казахстане. Центр санитарно-эпидемиологической
экспертизы г. Алматы, Казахстан, 2013г.- с.6
17 Зыкин Л.Ф., Щербаков А.А., Хапцев З.Ю. Иерсиниоз и псевдотуберкулез сельскохозяйст-
венных животных.//Саратов, 2002. -70с.
IMPORTANT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN ORGANIC HAZELNUT
GROWING OF TURKEY
I.Akca - Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun 55139,
Turkey
I.Saruhan - Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun
55139, Turkey
C.Tuncer - Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun
55139, Turkey
Hazelnut is one of the major products made in organic production in Turkey. The most important
problem in hazelnut production are the hazelnut pests which cause losses in quality and yield of the
products. The types of pests and their severity vary from area to area and from year to year. Use of chemical
pesticides is the most common method used against hazelnut pests. However, since the use of chemicals is
limited in organic farming, having a solid knowledge about the biology of the pests, identification and
implementation of alternative methods against pests are inevitable. In this article the major pests which
cause problems in hazelnut production and pest management are described.
Key words: Organic farming, Hazelnut pests, Pest control.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important problems of developing countries is to be able to feed the rapidly growing
population. Because the world's population has been growing rapidly, but the surface area of the world does
not change. For a production to meet the needs of a growing population, it is not possible to open new areas
for agriculture.Then, what to do is; to increase the amount of products to be obtained from the unit area. For
these reasons, using modern techniques and inputs in agricultural production has become imperative. And
the most important of these inputs are pesticides.
In our country, as in the world, the use of pesticides has started a long time ago and increased day by
day as well. But over time, the negative effects of pesticides to the environment including people especially,
have begun to be determined. Therefore, a preference for a farming system without using chemicals or with
chemicals which have no adverse impacts to the environment has begun in the product farming.
Hazelnut is the most important nut crop of Turkey. Hazelnut cultivation in Turkey covers almost
640.000 ha of land, and Turkey is the world’s primary producer of hazelnut, representing nearly 75% of world
hazelnut production (Anonymous 2015a,b). Insect pests are the major concern of many hazelnut growers in
Turkey.
In recent years there is an increase in organic hazelnut growing in Turkey day by day (Tuncer, 2009).
In 2013, Turkey produced nearly 10.000 tons of organic hazelnut in eight main provinces (Anonymous,
2015c).However, some pests in hazelnut production areas threat the production in various stages of
vegetation and cause significant yield losses. These pests can vary from year to year and from region to
region (Tuncer and Ecevit, 2007; Tuncer et. al. 2001).
In this article, information about important pests that cause crop losses in hazelnut production areas in
Turkey are given. In addition, we will discuss some measures that should be taken to avoid problems of
these pests in organic hazelnut cultivation and the organic chemicals recommended for pest management.
IMPORTANT HAZELNUT PESTS AND CONTROL
Hazelnut weevil (Curculio nucum L. Col: Curculionidae):
Curculio nucum overwinters as a full grown diapausing larvae in the soil. After late march
overwintering larvae starts to pupate and adults are seen. The first adults begin to appear in early March and
the exit rates increase by warming of weather. Adults emergence reach peak in early May. The adults can
live up to 3 months. Young adults feed on the flowers, opening buds and young foliage. Females make a
small wound on the nut shell by their beak and generally deposit one egg per each nut. Each female can
produce about 40 eggs. After egg hatching , the larvae penetrates to the kernel and feed on it and completes
development in 4-5 weeks. Fully grown larvae chew their way out of the nut on one of the sides. The larvae
come out of the nut , go into soil, form a hard silken coccoon amongst the roots of hostplant, at a depth of
10-15 cm and overwinters until the following spring. Some overwintering larvae may stay in diapause 2-3
years. There is only one generation per year (Akca and Tuncer, 2005;Tuncer, 2015).
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Adults feed on leaves, flowers and opening buds. In addition, they start to feed on small nut and cause
empty nuts that are brown in color and premature nut drop. After egg hatching, the larvae feed on kernel
inside of nut and cause empty,black and holed nuts. These nuts drop the ground.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; Thin-shelled hazelnut species were generally more
sensitive to hazelnut weevil than those with thick skin. Therefore resistant hazelnut species should be
detected and grown. Preliminary studies unfortunately indicate that the most common and marketable
cultivars, ‘Çakıldak’, ‘Palaz’ and ‘Tombul’, are susceptible to nut weevil (Ecevit et al., 1996). Picking and
destroying damaged nuts in August is the main cultural control method in Turkey. The adults should be
collected by the method of shaking the trees on sheets in May and June. Because this pest spend a certain
portion of its harmful biological term in soil, it can be prevented to cause a problem next year by making
tillage. Also by gluing sticky traps to the hazelnut bodies, we may prevent the adults reaching the plant's
branches and cloves. In adults control, biopesticide with Spinosad effective substances containing bacterial
toxins may be used. Kaolin is recommended against some Curculio species on some other crops. Possibly
kaolin can be effective on the nut weevil although it is not registered for use (Tuncer, 2009).
Green Shield Bug ( Palomena prasina L. Het: Pentatomidae )
Palomena prasina overwinters as an adult under fallen leaves or similar protected places. The adults
begin to emerge in late March or April. After mating, the adults lay eggs on the lower surfaces of leaves as in
14-28 groups. First, nymphs feed through weeds and then become harmful on hazelnuts. The new
generation of adults who begin appearing in July, feed on fruits till the harvest and feed on leaves after the
harvest. The fruits that damaged until reaching the normal size, cause "Sarıkaramuk" losses like in the
hazelnut weevil and the fruits that damaged between the period from after reaching the normal size till filling
up their inner parts cause "Karakaramuk". In the period when the fruits just fill the interiors, due to the
absorption by the pest, there occur collapses, amorphous interiors and stained interiors in the fruits.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; a certain period of the nymphal stages of this pest
passes on weeds. Therefore the weeds control in the hazelnut orchards is very importand (Tuncer and
Ecevit, 1996). The plants such as mulberry which is an important host, should not be kept near the hazelnut
orchards. Adults and nymphs should be collected by sheet method. Furthermore, since these pests drop
their eggs in batches, the nymphs hatched first live in batches. They must be crushed and collected when
seen in the hazelnut orchards. Unfortunately, there is almost no study on the effectiveness of pesticides
approved in organic production such as kaolin, spinosad, neem and microbial formulations for the control of
bug species in hazelnut orchards (Tuncer, 2009).
Ambrosia Beetles ( Anisandrus dispar, Xylosandrus germanus, Xleborinus saxesenii, Lymantor
coryli and Hypothenemus eriditus, Col:Scolytidae)
Ambrosia Beetle adults overwinter in the gallery. After the weather started to get warm, the females
exiting from the gallery begin to open new galleries by passing to the healthy branches. The females start lay
eggs into the gallery. The hatching larvae become pupae after 3 - 4 weeks. The new adults emerging from
pupae remain in the gallery until the following year’s exit time. An average female lays up to 50 eggs.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; Mechanical control is very important in reducing the
pest population. Trees and branches heavily infested by ambrosia beetle should be removed and burned by
early March, before adult emergence starts (Tuncer and Ecevit, 1996). Since these insects prefer trees in
poor condition, hazelnut trees must be supported by good fertilization, pruning and watering, so as to keep
the trees vigorous against these pests. The “Rebell Rosso” trap (baited with ethanol and denaturized with
1% toluol) were found to be very effective in mass trapping of these pests in Turkish hazelnut orchards
(Tuncer, 2009). For low and high level infectious, 3-4 trap/da and 6-8 trap/da are recommended for mass
trapping respectively, especially in July and August (Ak et al., 2005).
Big Bud Mites (Phytoptus avellanae, Cecidophyopsis vermiformis Nal. Acarina: Eriophyidae)
They are very small mites, 0.09 mm in length. This pest is very common in hazelnut orchards. They
attacks the cellular walls of the internal parts of the current year’s bud shoots, which, as early as September,
begin to become larger and deformed. In spring , the females leave the deformed buds to invade the young
leaves and lay eggs. The nymphs develop freely and change into adults in June-July before invading the
new buds of the current year’s shoots. The adults breed in autumn and winter. This pest causes important
reductions in the harvest. The attacked buds begin to become deformed as early as September, they
enlarge and external scales widen considerably. The buds destined to give female flowers seem to be
preferentially invaded (Tuncer,2009).
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; the resistant hazelnut species should be preferred
first. Among the main Turkish cultivars, ‘Tombul’, ‘Mincane’ and ‘Uzunmusa’ have been determined as most
susceptible to big bud mite while ‘Acı’, ‘Kuş’ and ‘Palaz’ were found to be the most resistant (Ozman, 1995).
Buds damaged by mites can be seen easily, especially before trees come into leaf. Picking and removing the
buds from orchards is a useful tool in suppressing mite populations (Tuncer et al., 2001). The use of sulfur
against big bud mites is very common throughout the world. In addition, Kampimodromus aberrans and
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Verticillium lecanii were found having potential as biocontrol agents for bigbud mites (Ozman and Hattat,
1999; Ozman, 2002).
European Fruit Lecanium, Scale Insects (Parthenolecanium corni, P. rufulum, Hom: Coccidae):
The eggs of this pest are under the shell. These eggs begin to open in late May. The exited larvae
disperse to shoots and leaves. The larvae migrate to shoots and winter before defoliation. The first adults
appear in April. A female lays about 1400 eggs. The larvae and adults feed by absorption on leaves and
shoots. In addition, they cause fumagine with the sweet substance they release. Thus they cause weakening
of the plants, decreasing the yield and significant harm by causing dry branches in the case of dense
infection.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; Pruning of heavily damaged shoots by scale insects
is practiced in control, in Turkey (Tuncer et al., 2001). A fungus, Verticillium lecanii is effective in suppressing
the populations of this pest in Turkey (Tuncer and Ecevit, 1996a). Cordyceps clavulutus and V.lecanii have
4% and 90% infections on this pest, respectively in some hazelnut orchards in Turkey (İren, 1970).
Commercial products of V.lecanii can be used in control. Application of orchard spray oil during dormant
season is found as effective against scale insects (AliNiazee,1977). In addition, Azadirachtin which is
biopesticides can be used to control against this pest.
Filbert aphids (Myzocallis coryli, Corylobium avellanae Hom.: Aphididae)
The aphids overwinter as egg. The eggs begin to open from the beginning of March and continues
until 4-5 weeks. Adults continue to reproduce without mating during the summer. After being fed on the
newly opened leaves and buds in the spring, they pass on the lower leaf surface with a full formation of the
leaves and there they continue to feeding and breeding. They can be seen in all the leaves but mostly they
are clustered at the ends of too young leaves. Its harm occurs by feeding by sucking the plant sap from
under the leaf. This pest also causes harmful fumagine formation by secreting a honeyed substance. In
addition, they can be vectors of virus diseases.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; since it spend the winter in the eggs period in the
branches, pruning should be done. Hazelnut plants should not be planted too close. In general, aphids are
controlled by natural enemies in hazelnut orchards. Beneficial insect activity should be checked. If the
population is very high, Spinosad and Azadirachtin which are biopesticide may be used (Mıcık and
Akça,2010.
Hazelnut Long-horned Beetle ( Obera linearis L. Col: Cerambycidae)
The adults appear in May and June depending on climate. The female lays eggs 10-15 cm below from
the ends of the annual shoots. First, the hatched larvae opens a gallery perpendicular to the shoot axis in a
semicircular shape. Then in the next spring, the larvae that wintered in this gallery opens a short gallery
upward. It spends the second winter by preparing a nest in late fall. It become pupa here in April next year.
The adults exit by opening a hole in the shell.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; Although this pest is very widespread, its control is
comparatively easy. Leaves on the shoots bored by this pest turn a brown color and can be easily
recognized. Pruning of shoots and twigs damaged by this pest is the control practised in Turkey (Tuncer and
Ecevit, 1996; Tuncer et.al. 2001).
Fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury)( Lep: Arctiidae)
Hyphantria cunea, passes the winter as pupa. The adult emergence from wintering pupa continues
until mid-May to mid-June. These adults lay the eggs in groups on the leaves. The number of eggs in an egg
package can be up to 2000 depending on the plant it is fed from. The larvae from egg clusters feed on
leaves. Then finding a suitable place they become pupa. The adult emergence of the second progeny
coincides with the third week of July and continues through to mid-August. Again, it leaves eggs and the
larvae exited from the eggs feed on the leaves. Then on the places where land joins trees, in cracks and
crevices of the trees, in the cavities of the very old trees, in the slot of the walls, between the eaves of the
roof of the buildings they become pupa into a cocoon.
The Acceptable Control within Organic Farming; Collecting larval colonies in nests are recommended
for control in June and August (Tuncer et al., 2001). Also in pupation time of first generation larvae, mostly
after mid-July, to make a firm and dark band around tree trunk from natural materials create very good
pupation site and thousands of pupa can be destroyed. Since mulberry and boxelder trees are the main host
of this pest, they shouldn’t be in or close to hazelnut orchards and especially main host plants must be
monitored carefully in time of first generation of pest (Tuncer and Ecevit, 1996). Mechanical control is highly
effective and recommended.
Tuncer and Ecevit(1996b) found 11 parasitoids and predators species on fall webworm in Turkey. In
most years natural enemies suppress the fall webworm populations. It should be sprayed with a preparation
containing Azadirachtin or Bacillus thuringiensis against larvae.
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