Figure 3.2
Key questions in research design
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126
TYPES OF LITERATURE
When you start out, it is helpful to analyse the research designs used by more
experienced researchers. This will not only help you to see what is possible, but will also
give you a good insight into the strengths and limitations of the various methodologies
and methods being used. To help illustrate this, Table 3.1 and 3.2 present a summary of
the methods and sample sizes used for each research project reported in three exemplar
papers.
Table 3.1
Methodology continuum
Table 3.2
Methods and sample sizes
SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH
84
Qualitative study
Multiple methods study
Quantitative study
Cotton (2006)
Donohoe, Topping and Hannah (2012)
Ivens (2007)
Teaching controversial
environmental issues: neutrality
and balance in the reality of the
classroom
The impact of the online interactive
programme (Brainology) on the mindset,
resiliency and sense of mastery of secondary
school pupils
The development of a
happiness measure in
school children.
Educational Research, 48(2):
223–241
Educational Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012
.675646
Educational Psychology
in Practice, 23 (3):
221–239.
Table 5.1 Methodology continuum
Ivens (2007)
Quantitative study,
fixed design
Donohoe, Topping and Hannah (2012)
Multiple methods
Cotton (2006)
Qualitative study,
flexible design
Research
Question(s)
Is the School
Children’s Happiness
Inventory (SCHI) a
valid and reliable
psychometric test?
(1) Will the intervention group move towards
a growth mindset after participating
in the Brainology program. How will this
compare to the comparison group
performance over the same time period?
(2) Will any significant changes by either
group be sustained at follow-up?
(3) Does the program impact upon pupils’
resiliency, and specifically their sense of
mastery?
(4) How will the pupils help explain any
significant changes in mindset and resiliency?
Do teachers believe
that they should take
a balanced or neutral
view when teaching
about controversial
issues? What actually
happens in their
classroom?
Methods
What specific
techniques were
used?
Series of self-report
questionnaires for
students
Theories of intelligence and resiliency, self
report questionnaires,
focus group
Lesson observations,
semi-structured
interviews with
teachers and students
How are the
data analysed?
Look for correlation,
tested against
standardized
psychometric test(s)
Statistical analysis and coding of interview
transcripts
Themes and issues
emerging from close
reading of interview
transcripts and lesson
observations
How are the
data shown to
be trustworthy?
Large enough sample
Scales validated,
constant comparative data analysis
In-depth, rich data
collected
Sampling
strategy:
From whom did
the researchers
seek data?
One discrete study of
771 8–15 yr old
students, 77 8–11 yr
old students as part of
larger study, 41 8–14
yr old students as an
interview transcript
33 secondary school
(25 boys and 8 girls),
18 pupils in the intervention
group (14 boys and 4 girls) and 15 (11 boys
and 4 girls) in the comparison group.
Three experienced
teachers
Where and
when?
In school during a
research project
In school over 4 week period.
Three schools for a
5–6 week period
Table 5.2 Methods and sample sizes
06-Wilson-Ch-05-Section-2.indd 84
8/31/2012 5:40:48 PM
SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH
84
Qualitative study
Multiple methods study
Quantitative study
Cotton (2006)
Donohoe, Topping and Hannah (2012)
Ivens (2007)
Teaching controversial
environmental issues: neutrality
and balance in the reality of the
classroom
The impact of the online interactive
programme (Brainology) on the mindset,
resiliency and sense of mastery of secondary
school pupils
The development of a
happiness measure in
school children.
Educational Research, 48(2):
223–241
Educational Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012
.675646
Educational Psychology
in Practice, 23 (3):
221–239.
Table 5.1 Methodology continuum
Ivens (2007)
Quantitative study,
fixed design
Donohoe, Topping and Hannah (2012)
Multiple methods
Cotton (2006)
Qualitative study,
flexible design
Research
Question(s)
Is the School
Children’s Happiness
Inventory (SCHI) a
valid and reliable
psychometric test?
(1) Will the intervention group move towards
a growth mindset after participating
in the Brainology program. How will this
compare to the comparison group
performance over the same time period?
(2) Will any significant changes by either
group be sustained at follow-up?
(3) Does the program impact upon pupils’
resiliency, and specifically their sense of
mastery?
(4) How will the pupils help explain any
significant changes in mindset and resiliency?
Do teachers believe
that they should take
a balanced or neutral
view when teaching
about controversial
issues? What actually
happens in their
classroom?
Methods
What specific
techniques were
used?
Series of self-report
questionnaires for
students
Theories of intelligence and resiliency, self
report questionnaires,
focus group
Lesson observations,
semi-structured
interviews with
teachers and students
How are the
data analysed?
Look for correlation,
tested against
standardized
psychometric test(s)
Statistical analysis and coding of interview
transcripts
Themes and issues
emerging from close
reading of interview
transcripts and lesson
observations
How are the
data shown to
be trustworthy?
Large enough sample
Scales validated,
constant comparative data analysis
In-depth, rich data
collected
Sampling
strategy:
From whom did
the researchers
seek data?
One discrete study of
771 8–15 yr old
students, 77 8–11 yr
old students as part of
larger study, 41 8–14
yr old students as an
interview transcript
33 secondary school
(25 boys and 8 girls),
18 pupils in the intervention
group (14 boys and 4 girls) and 15 (11 boys
and 4 girls) in the comparison group.
Three experienced
teachers
Where and
when?
In school during a
research project
In school over 4 week period.
Three schools for a
5–6 week period
Table 5.2 Methods and sample sizes
06-Wilson-Ch-05-Section-2.indd 84
8/31/2012 5:40:48 PM
Research Design
127
Qualitative studies
Cotton’s qualitative paper investigated teachers’ beliefs about teaching controversial issues
and matched these with what was actually happening in their classrooms. She observed
three teachers in different schools over a 5–6 week period and also interviewed both
teachers and students using a semi-structured interview schedule. She analysed the
themes and issues emerging from a close reading of the interview transcripts and lesson
observations, and checked the trustworthiness of her data by collecting extensive data and
by verifying the accuracy of her interpretation through consulting the teachers concerned.
Quantitative studies
Ivens’s quantitative paper investigated the validity and reliability of a modified Subjective
Well-Being (SWB) inventory originally used with adults. He modified the psychometric
test so that it could be used with school-aged students and renamed the test School
Children’s Happiness Inventory (SCHI). He subsequently collected data through a series of
self-report questionnaires from a large number of students. These data were validated by
using statistical correlation.
Multiple methods
The final paper is an example of a mixed-methods approach. This is an exploratory study.
to investigate the impact of the online interactive programme Brainology on the mindset,
resiliency and sense of mastery of secondary-school pupils. A quasi experimental pre-
, post- and follow-up mixed-methods study was carried out with 33 participants aged
13–14 years. Quantitative data were analysed using analysis of variance. Qualitative data
from focus groups were categorized and coded.
WHICH METHODOLOGY IS USEFUL FOR SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH?
The methodological approach adopted will be dependent on the time and resources
available to you to undertake school-based research. You are likely to be engaged in a
small-scale, short-term, classroom-based project, so using either a case-study or action-
research approach is likely to be the most appropriate method.
Case study
Cotton’s paper is an example of a case study. Case studies provide detailed knowledge
about a single ‘case’ or small number of cases. In Cotton’s paper, the cases are three
classroom teachers within the context of different schools. She collected detailed
information about each teacher and school through lesson observations and semi-
structured interviews with teachers and students, and looked for patterns across the cases.
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128
Action research
Donohoe, Topping and Hannahs’ paper is an example of researchers directly participating
in the process of initiating change, while at the same time researching the effects of
such changes on the school, and as such is an example of one cycle of an action research
study.
OTHER METHODOLOGIES
If you have an extended period of time available to carry out your research, you may be
able to use a grounded theory or an ethnographic approach if this is appropriate to
meet the aims of your project.
Grounded theory
This approach involves generating theory from data collected during the study and is
particularly useful in new, applied areas of research where there is a lack of theory and
concepts to describe and explain what is going on. Chapter 17 provides detailed guidance
about carrying out a grounded-theory study.
Ethnography
Ethnographic methodology originated in the field of anthropology and describes people
and their cultures. In a school context, an ethnographic study would provide a summary
of the extensive rich data collected about the participants over an extended, extensive
period of observation, while at the same time being culturally immersed in the classrooms.
This closeness to the research context is a potential threat to the validity and reliability
of the data collection and analysis process; therefore, ethnographers are constantly
vigilant of their own interpretation of situations and try to overcome this by verifying and
incorporating the perspectives of the participants to validate emerging ideas.
For example, in the paper ‘Climbing over the rocks in the road to student
engagement and learning in a challenging high school in Australia’ (Smyth and Fasoli, 2007),
Smyth and Fasoli report on an ethnographic case study of a single secondary school
conducted over a 5-week continuous period. They used ‘embedded interviews’ involving
observation of in-class teaching prior to extensive one-hour interviews with teachers and
students’ focus groups. All interviews were recorded. Detailed field notes were kept of
classroom observations and other activities, including school assemblies, staff meetings and
reflections on informal conversations held during teaching breaks in the staffroom. Activity
5.1 uses the criteria set out below to help judge this ethnographic study.
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129
Ethnographic approach
• Does the research avoid disrupting the natural setting?
• How does the research focus on lifestyle and meaning?
• How have the researchers negotiated access to the school?
• How much time have the researchers spent in the classroom?
• How much data have they collected?
• Have the researchers considered both processes and relationships?
• Do the researchers take account of their own beliefs, interests, experience and
expertise in drawing conclusions?
• Do the researchers describe how their work builds on or contradicts other
explanations?
• Do the researchers acknowledge that their findings are their interpretation rather than
a literal description?
LARGE-SCALE QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
When the aim of the research is to seek patterns and the researcher has access to large
numbers of participants, perhaps at a whole-school level, then you could use either an
experimental or non-experimental fixed research design. Chapters 11 and 12 provide
details of these approaches.
1. Experimental design: Hidi, Berndorff and Ainley’s paper is an example of an
experimental strategy. The central feature of this approach is that the researcher
actively and deliberately introduces a change in the situation of the participants with
a view to producing and measuring a resultant change in their behaviour. This is an
example of a researcher manipulating one variable on another variable – in this case,
the detailed design was pre-specified before the main data collection began.
2. Non-experimental design: Ivens’s paper (2007), on the other hand, uses a non-
experimental strategy. Although Ivens draws on a large sample, his approach is
different from the experimental approach in that he does not attempt to change the
participants’ circumstances but rather looks for patterns on the data.
Activity 3.1
Read Smyth and Fasoli’s paper. Use the criteria set out below in the form of
a series of questions to analyse the ethnographic study and write down what
evidence there is that these antena are met in this paper.
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HOW BIG SHOULD YOUR SAMPLE BE?
Before starting to collect data for all methodological approaches, you should define the
population of your area of interest and determine the size of your sample by using an
appropriate sampling strategy. In other words, start by considering who you will include
in your research project and why, and be able to justify the selection of this sample.
If you intend to generate big numerical data sets to look for patterns and correlations,
you should read Chapter 11 which will explain the different approaches you could take.
If, on the other hand, you are interested in what is going on in a particular setting,
then the sampling approach will be different and will be determined by the scope of
your study. To this end, your research approach should be either very thorough or
confirmed by using multiple methods. Being thorough involves saturation, that is continuing
to gather information until you reach a point where you are not adding any new
data. This is more likely to happen through prolonged engagement with your research,
persistent observation, broad representation of the area of study and through dialogue
with a critical friend. Chapters 9 and 10 extend these ideas further.
Key ideas
As an individual classroom practitioner, it is advisable for you to keep your study
narrowly bound with a clear manageable focus because the broader the scope,
the longer it will take you to collect sufficient data to be confident about the
validity and reliability of the claims being made, so that your work will be credible.
For example, planning repeated interviews using semi-structured interviews,
which produce a small amount of data per interview question, will need a large
number of participants, while in-depth interviews producing much richer data
can be fewer in number.
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Reflective questions
• What is IT you want to research?
• How will you measure this ?
• How best can you answer your research question?
• Are you trying to study something in depth or make changes and see if they
make a difference? So what methodology will you use?
• What are the most useful and appropriate data collection methods to use?
FURTHER READING
Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. (1998) Fundamentals of Educational Research. London: The
Falmer Press.
Bridges, D. (2001) ‘The ethics of outsider research’, Journal of Philosophy of Education,
35(3): 371–87.
Busher, H. (2002) ‘Ethics of research in education’, in M. Coleman and A.R.J. Briggs (eds)
Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management. London: Paul Chapman.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Creswell, J. (2012) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (3rd edn). London: Sage. Publications
Creswell, J. (2012) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Approaches (3rd edn). London: Sage Publications.
Denscombe, M. (2012) The Good Research Guide (3rd edn). Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill
(Open University Press).
Pendlebury, S. and Enslin, P. (2001) ‘Representation, identification and trust: Towards an
ethics of educational research’, Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35(3): 361–70.
Pring, R. (2004) Philosophy of Educational Research. London: Continuum.
Simons, H. and Usher, R. (eds) (2000) Situated Ethics in Educational Research. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Taskakkori, A. and Teddlie, C. (1998) Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative and
Quantative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Thomas. G (2009 ) How to Do Your Research Project: A Guide for Students in Education
and Applied Social Sciences. London: Sage Publications.
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ПРОЕКТ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ
ГЛАВА 3
Обзор главы
Данная глава проясняет, как философские идеи определяют исходные условия,
предпосылки исследовательских проектов. Отступив в сторону и рассмотрев
характер и сущность знаний и способы их исследования, вы сделаете
ваше исследование научным проектом, а не просто аудиторной оценкой.
Важная часть планирования вашего исследования и распространения вашей
работы будет включать донесение своего собственного теоретического
представления до других читателей вашей работы. Будучи аудиторными
учителями (преподавателями), мы обычно не тратим время на размышления
о теоретических перспективах, информирующих о вашей работе. Однако,
чтобы стать заслуживающим доверия исследователем, который по-настоящему
рефлексирует, необходимо подумать об онтологии и эпистемологии, поскольку
эти основные направления позволяют вам выбрать методологию и создадут
контекст для процесса исследования и основание для логики и критериев ваших
суждений.
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Теоретические перспективы
Онтология
Онтология является комплексной идеей. Blaikie (2000: 8) описывает ее как:
утверждения и предположения относительно природы социальной реальности,
утверждения о том, что существует, как оно выглядит, из каких элементов состоит
и как эти элементы взаимодействуют друг с другом. Словом, онтологические
предположения касаются того, из чего, по нашему мнению, состоит социальная
реальность.
Параметры научного исследования природы можно четко определить,
например, химический процесс можно изолировать и исследовать. Однако, когда
исследователи социальных наук изучают людей, по отдельности или совместно,
взаимодействия могут быть непредсказуемы, поскольку люди могут действовать
иррационально, учиться и меняться. Поэтому онтология в социальных, гуманитарных
науках гораздо сложнее и включает четкое определение того конкретного, что
подлежит исследованию. Например, в школах это может быть взаимодействие
учителей с учениками или то, как ученики учатся.
Таким образом, онтология – это то, что вы исследуете и изучаете о и задает
такие вопросы как: что является фундаментальным? Что реально, и что нет?
Иными словами, онтологический вопрос, сфокусированный на школе
и обучении, может звучать как «что такое вовлеченность»? Является ли это
фундаментальным измеримым фактором, чем конкретно она является и можно ли ее
определить и измерить?
Что такое эпистемология?
Если онтология – это изучение того, что есть или что существует в социальной
среде, то эпистемология – это исследование нашего знания о мире. Как мы узнаем о
мире, который мы определили, охарактеризовали онтологически?
Эпистемологи задаются следующими вопросами:
•
Что такое знание и откуда мы узнаем о разных вещах?
•
Есть ли различные виды знания?
•
Есть ли достоверные методы обнаружения знания?
Эпистемология – это наука, изучающая природу знания (от греческого «эпистема»,
т.е. «то, что мы знаем»). Она отвечает на вопросы: как мы приходим к познанию
мира и почему мы уверены в том, что знаем?
Иллюстрируя это на приведенном ранее примере вовлеченности, если мы
можем с точностью определить слово «вовлеченность», то как нам его «измерить»
обоснованным и достоверным способом.
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