Computer
Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that
consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical
hardware from which the system is built.
The term "software" was first proposed by Alan Turing and used in this sense
by John W.Tukey in 1957. In computer science and software engineering, computer
software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data.
Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-
executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware
and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions
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specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU). A
machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor
instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For
example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location
in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction
may also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the computer
system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out
the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to ‘jump” to a
different instruction, or interrupted.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that
are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language.
High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an
interpreter or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level
assembly language, essentially, a vague mnemonic representation of a machine
language using a natural language alphabet, which is translated into machine
language using an assembler.
Computational Thinking--What and Why?
By Jeannette M. Wing
In March 2006 article for the Communications of the ACM, I used the term
"computational thinking" to articulate a vision that everyone, not just those who
major in computer science, can benefit from thinking like a computer scientist
[Wing06]. So, what is computational thinking? Here's a definition that Jan Cuny of
the National Science Foundation, Larry Snyder of the University of Washington, and
I use; it was inspired by an email exchange I had with Al Aho of Columbia
University:
Computational thinking is the thought processes involved in formulating
problems and their solutions so that the solutions are represented in a form that can
be effectively carried out by an information-processing agent.
Informally, computational thinking describes the mental activity in formulating
a problem to admit a computational solution. The solution can be carried out by a
human or machine, or more generally, by combinations of humans and machines.
My interpretation of the words "problem" and "solution" is broad. I mean not
just mathematically well-defined problems whose solutions are completely
analyzable, e.g., a proof, an algorithm, or a program, but also real-world problems
whose solutions might be in the form of large, complex software systems. Thus,
computational thinking overlaps with logical thinking and systems thinking. It
includes algorithmic thinking and parallel thinking, which in turn engage other kinds
of thought processes, such as compositional reasoning, pattern matching, procedural
thinking, and recursive thinking. Computational thinking is used in the design and
analysis
of
problems
and
their
solutions,
broadly
interpreted.
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The Value of Abstraction
The most important and high-level thought process in computational thinking
is the abstraction process. Abstraction is used in defining patterns, generalizing from
specific instances, and parameterization. It is used to let one object stand for many. It
is used to capture essential properties common to a set of objects while hiding
irrelevant distinctions among them. For example, an algorithm is an abstraction of a
process that takes inputs, executes a sequence of steps, and produces outputs to
satisfy a desired goal. An abstract data type defines an abstract set of values and
operations for manipulating those values, hiding the actual representation of the
values from the user of the abstract data type. Designing efficient algorithms
inherently involves designing abstract data types.
Abstraction gives us the power to scale and deal with complexity. Applying
abstraction recursively allows us to build larger and larger systems, with the base
case (at least for computer science) being bits (0's and 1's). In computing, we
routinely build systems in terms of layers of abstraction, allowing us to focus on one
layer at a time and on the formal relations (e.g., "uses," "refines" or "implements,"
"simulates") between adjacent layers. When we write a program in a high-level
language, we're building on lower layers of abstractions. We don't worry about the
details of the underlying hardware, the operating system, the file system, or the
network; furthermore, we rely on the compiler to correctly implement the semantics
of the language. The narrow-waist architecture of the Internet demonstrates the
effectiveness and robustness of appropriately designed abstractions: the simple
TCP/IP layer at the middle has enabled a multitude of unforeseen applications to
proliferate at layers above, and a multitude of unforeseen platforms, communications
media, and devices to proliferate at layers below.
Computational thinking draws on both mathematical thinking and engineering
thinking. Unlike mathematics, however, our computing systems are constrained by
the physics of the underlying information-processing agent and its operating
environment. And so, we must worry about boundary conditions, failures, malicious
agents, and the unpredictability of the real world. And unlike other engineering
disciplines, in computing --thanks to software, our unique "secret weapon"--we can
build virtual worlds that are unconstrained by physical realities. And so, in
cyberspace our creativity is limited only by our imagination.
Computational Thinking and Other Disciplines
Computational thinking has already influenced the research agenda of all
science and engineering disciplines. Starting decades ago with the use of
computational modeling and simulation, through today's use of data mining and
machine learning to analyze massive amounts of data, computation is recognized as
the third pillar of science, along with theory and experimentation [PITAC 2005].
The expedited sequencing of the human genome through the "shotgun
algorithm" awakened the interest of the biology community in computational
methods, not just computational artifacts (such as computers and networks). The
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volume and rate at which scientists and engineers are now collecting and producing
data--through instruments, experiments and simulations--are demanding advances in
data analytics, data storage and retrieval, as well as data visualization. The
complexity of the multi-dimensional systems that scientists and engineers want to
model and analyze requires new computational abstractions.
These are just two reasons that every scientific directorate and office at the
National Science Foundation participates in the Cyber-enabled Discovery and
Innovation, or CDI, program, an initiative started four years ago with a fiscal year
2011 budget request of $100 million. CDI is in a nutshell "computational thinking for
science and engineering."
Computational thinking has also begun to influence disciplines and professions
beyond science and engineering. For example, areas of active study include
algorithmic medicine, computational archaeology, computational economics,
computational
finance,
computation
and
journalism,
computational
law,
computational social science, and digital humanities. Data analytics is used in
training Army recruits, detecting email spam and credit card fraud, recommending
and ranking the quality of services, and even personalizing coupons at supermarket
checkouts.
At Carnegie Mellon, computational thinking is everywhere. We have degree
programs, minors, or tracks in "computational X" where X is applied mathematics,
biology, chemistry, design, economics, finance, linguistics, mechanics, neuroscience,
physics and statistical learning. We even have a course in computational
photography. We have programs in computer music, and in computation,
organizations and society. The structure of our School of Computer Science hints at
some of the ways that computational thinking can be brought to bear on other
disciplines. The Robotics Institute brings together computer science, electrical
engineering, and mechanical engineering; the Language Technologies Institute,
computer science and linguistics; the Human-Computer Interaction Institute,
computer science, design, and psychology; the Machine Learning Department,
computer science and statistics; the Institute for Software Research, computer
science, public policy, and social science. The newest kid on the block, the Lane
Center for Computational Biology, brings together computer science and biology.
The Entertainment Technology Center is a joint effort of SCS and the School of
Drama. SCS additionally offers joint programs in algorithms, combinatorics and
optimization (computer science, mathematics, and business); computer science and
fine arts; logic and computation (computer science and philosophy); and pure and
applied
logic
(computer
science,
mathematics,
and
philosophy).
Computational Thinking in Daily Life
Can we apply computational thinking in daily life? Yes! These stories helpfully
provided by Computer Science Department faculty demonstrate a few ways:
Pipelining: SCS Dean Randy Bryant was pondering how to make the diploma
ceremony at commencement go faster. By careful placement of where individuals
stood, he designed an efficient pipeline so that upon the reading of each graduate's
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name and honors by Assistant Dean Mark Stehlik, each person could receive his or
her diploma, then get a handshake or hug from Mark, and then get his or her picture
taken. This pipeline allowed a steady stream of students to march across the stage
(though a pipeline stall occurred whenever the graduate's cap would topple while
getting hug from Mark).
Seth Goldstein, associate professor of computer science, once remarked to me
that most buffet lines could benefit from computational thinking: "Why do they
always put the dressing before the salad? The sauce before the main dish? The
silverware at the start? They need some pipeline theory."
Hashing: After giving a talk at a department meeting about computational
thinking, Professor Danny Sleator told me about a hashing function his children use
to store away Lego blocks at home. According to Danny, they hash on several
different categories: rectangular thick blocks, other thick (non-rectangular) blocks,
thins (of any shape), wedgies, axles, rivets and spacers, "fits on axle," ball and socket
and "miscellaneous." They even have rules to classify pieces that could fit into more
than one category. "Even though this is pretty crude, it saves about a factor of 10
when looking for a piece," Danny says. Professor Avrim Blum overheard my
conversation with Danny and chimed in "At our home, we use a different hash
function."
Sorting: The following story is taken verbatim from an email sent by Roger
Dannenberg, associate research professor of computer science and professional
trumpeter. "I showed up to a big band gig, and the band leader passed out books with
maybe 200 unordered charts and a set list with about 40 titles we were supposed to
get out and place in order, ready to play. Everyone else started searching through the
stack, pulling out charts one-at-a-time. I decided to sort the 200 charts alphabetically
O(N log(N)) and then pull the charts O(M log(N)). I was still sorting when other band
members were halfway through their charts, and I started to get some funny looks,
but in the end, I finished first. That's computational thinking."
Benefits of Computational Thinking
Computational thinking enables you to bend computation to your needs. It is
becoming the new literacy of the 21st century. Why should everyone learn a little
computational thinking? Cuny, Snyder and I advocate these benefits
[CunySnyderWing10]:
Computational
thinking
for
everyone
means
being
able
to:
Understand which aspects of a problem are amenable to computation,
-
Evaluate the match between computational tools and techniques and a
problem,
-
Understand the limitations and power of computational tools and
techniques,
-
Apply or adapt a computational tool or technique to a new use,
-
Recognize an opportunity to use computation in a new way, and
-
Apply computational strategies such divide and conquer in any domain.
Computational thinking for scientists, engineers, and other professionals
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further means being able to:
-
Apply new computational methods to their problems,
-
Reformulate problems to be amenable to computational strategies,
-
Discover new science through analysis of large data,
-
Ask new questions that were not thought of or dared to ask because of
scale, but which are easily addressed computationally, and
-
Explain problems and solutions in computational terms.
Computational Thinking in Education
Campuses throughout the United States and abroad are revisiting their
undergraduate curriculum in computer science. Many are changing their first course
in computer science to cover fundamental principles and concepts, not just
programming. For example, at Carnegie Mellon we recently revised our
undergraduate first-year courses to promote computational thinking for non-majors
Moreover, the interest and excitement surrounding computational thinking has grown
beyond undergraduate education to additional recent projects, many focused on
incorporating computational thinking into kindergarten through 12th grade education.
Sponsors include professional organizations, government, academia and industry.
The College Board, with support from NSF, is designing a new Advanced
Placement (AP) course that covers the fundamental concepts of computing and
computational thinking (see the website at www.csprinciples.org). Five universities
are piloting versions of this course this year: University of North Carolina at
Charlotte, University of California at Berkeley, Metropolitan State College of
Denver, University of California at San Diego and University of Washington. The
plan is for more schools--high schools, community colleges and universities--to
participate next year.
Computer science is also getting attention from elected officials. In May 2009,
computer science thought leaders held an event on Capitol Hill to call on
policymakers to put the "C" in STEM, that is, to make sure that computer science is
included in all federally-funded educational programs that focus on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. The event was sponsored
by ACM, CRA, CSTA, IEEE, Microsoft, NCWIT, NSF, and SWE .
The U.S. House of Representatives has now designated the first week of
December as Computer Science Education Week (www.csedweek.org); the event is
sponsored by ABI, ACM, BHEF, CRA, CSTA, Dot Diva, Google, Globaloria, Intel,
Microsoft, NCWIT, NSF, SAS, and Upsilon Pi Epsilon. In July 2010, U.S. Rep. Jared
Polis (D-CO) introduced the Computer Science Education Act (H.R. 5929) in an
attempt to boost K-12 computer science education efforts.
Another boost is expected to come from the NSF's Computing Education for
the 21st Century (CE21) program, started in September 2010 and designed to help K-
12 students, as well as first- and second-year college students, and their teachers
develop computational thinking competencies. CE21 builds on the successes of the
two NSF programs, CISE Pathways to Revitalized Undergraduate Computing
Education (CPATH) and Broadening Participating in Computing (BPC). CE21 has a
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special emphasis on activities that support the CS 10K Project, an initiative launched
by NSF through BPC. CS 10K aims to catalyze a revision of high school curriculum,
with the proposed new AP course as a centerpiece, and to prepare 10,000 teachers to
teach the new courses in 10,000 high schools by 2015.
Industry has also helped promote the vision of computing for all. Since 2006,
with help from Google and later Microsoft, Carnegie Mellon has held summer
workshops for high school teachers called "CS4HS." Those workshops are designed
to deliver the message that there is more to computer science than computer
programming. CS4HS spread in 2007 to UCLA and the University of Washington.
By 2010, under the auspices of Google, CS4HS had spread to 20 schools in the
United States and 14 in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Also at Carnegie Mellon,
Microsoft
Research
funds
the
Center
for
Computational
Thinking
(www.cs.cmu.edu/~CompThink/), which supports both research and educational
outreach projects.
Computational thinking has also spread internationally. In August 2010, the
Royal Society--the U.K.'s equivalent of the U.S.'s National Academy of Sciences--
announced that it is leading an 18-month project to look "at the way that computing is
taught in schools, with support from 24 organizations from across the computing
community including learned societies, professional bodies, universities and
industry." (See www.royalsociety.org/education-policy/projects/.) One organization
that has already taken up the challenge in the U.K. is called Computing At School, a
coalition run by the British Computing Society and supported by Microsoft Research
and other industry partners.
Resources Abound
The growing worldwide focus on computational thinking means that resources
are becoming available for educators, parents, students and everyone else interested
in the topic.
In October 2010, Google launched the Exploring Computational Thinking
website (www.google.com/edu/computational-thinking), which has a wealth of links
to further web resources, including lesson plans for K-12 teachers in science and
mathematics.
Computer Science Unplugged (www.csunplugged.org), created by Tim Bell,
Mike Fellows and Ian Witten, teaches computer science without the use of a
computer. It is especially appropriate for elementary and middle school children.
Several dozen people working in many countries, including New Zealand, Sweden,
Australia, China, Korea, Taiwan and Canada, as well as in the United States,
contribute to this extremely popular website.
The National Academies' Computer Science and Telecommunications Board
held a series of workshops on "Computational Thinking for Everyone" with a focus
on identifying the fundamental concepts of computer science that can be taught to K-
12 students. The first workshop report [NRC10] provides multiple perspectives on
computational thinking.
Additionally, panels and discussions on computational thinking have been
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plentiful at venues such as the annual ACM Special Interest Group on Computer
Science Education (SIGCSE) symposium and the ACM Educational Council. The
education committee of the CRA presented a white paper [CRA-E10] at the July
2010 CRA Snowbird conference, which includes recommendations for computational
thinking courses for non-majors. CSTA produced and distributes "Computational
Thinking Resource Set: A Problem-Solving Tool for Every Classroom." It's available
for download at the CSTA's.
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