Part used instead of the whole. E.g.: Turning our long boat round […] on the last morning
required all hands on deck … (hands = people)
Whole used instead of a part E.g.: Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers)
Specific term used instead of a general one: E.g.: Kashmir is their Maui, Aspen, and Palm
Springs all rolled into one. Note: For people from the US, every place represents a certain kind
of holiday destination: Maui is a typical island in the sun, Aspen a typical ski resort, Palm
Springs an attractive city with museums, theatres, shopping malls and festivals. Using the places
instead of what they stand for is shorter, and the reader knows exactly that Kashmir combines
everything you would expect to find in Maui, Aspen and Palm Springs.
General term used instead of a specific one: E.g.: The animal came closer. (animal = a
certain animal, e.g. a dog, dolphin, snake)
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Material used instead of the product: E.g.: She wore gold around her neck. (gold = chain)
It is used to avoid repetition or to enrich poetic imagery.
Pun a play on words that have a similar sound but different meanings. The English language
seems to lend itself to wordplay more than most languages because of its many homophones,
i.e. words with the same sound as another. Homophones lose their ambiguity as soon as they are
written. E.g.: At the drunkard‘s funeral, four of his friends carried the bier. (bier vs. beer)
A word with the same form as another but with a different meaning is called homonym. E.g. ―Is
life worth living?‖ – ―It depends on the liver‖ (liver = sb. who lives vs. liver) Effect: humour,
fun
Zeugma is a figure of speech describing the joining of two or more parts of a sentence with a
single common verb or noun. A zeugma employs both ellipsis, the omission of words which are
easily understood, and parallelism, the balance of several words or phrases. The result is a series
of similar phrases joined together by a common and implied noun or verb. It is highly
characteristic of English prose. In a modern sense, the zeugma has been classified as a synonym
for syllepsis. It has a strong humorous effect. E.g.: He took leave and his hat. She went home,
in a flood of tears and a sedan chair‖.
When the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the
same verb, increases, we deal with semantically false chains, which are thus a variation of
zeugma. As a rule, it is the last member of the chain that falls out of the thematic group,
defeating our expectancy and producing humorous effect. The following case from S. Leacock
may serve an example: ―A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Romanian, Russian,
Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering.‖ Effect: comical
Irony is saying the opposite of what you actually mean. E.g.: Teacher: ―You are absolutely
the best class I‘ve ever had.‖ Actual meaning: “the worst class” Effect: ridicule; often didactic
Sarcasm is bitter and aggressive humor used to express mockery or disapproval. Sarcasm
must be intentional and conscious.
Paradox is a statement that seems to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense. On
closer examination it mostly reveals some truth. E.g.: The child is father of the man.
(Wordsworth) / It is awfully hard work doing nothing. (Wilde) Effect: thought-provoking
Oxymoron a combination of openly contradictory words and meanings. E.g.: ―O hateful
love! O loving hate!‖ / ―I burn and freeze like ice.‖ (Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet) sweet death;
wise fool; cruel love Effect: provokes thoughts; emphasis
Epithet – expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing and imaginary. Its basic
features are its emotiveness and subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it
is always chosen by the speaker himself. There are two main groups: affective (emotive proper)
serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object of the speaker (gorgeous; nasty;
magnificent; etc.); figurative, or transferred epithets are formed of metaphors, metonymies and
similes (the smiling sun; the frowning cloud; the sleepless pillow; a ghost-like face) Epithets are
used:
single epithets - E.g.: a dreamlike experience
in pairs. Pairs are represented by two epithets joined by a conjunction or asyndetically E.g.:
‗wonderful and incomparable beauty‘ O. Wilde ‗ a tired old town‘ H. Lee
in chains. Chains (also called strings) of epithets present a group of homogeneous attributes
varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty and even more. E.g. ‗You‘re a scolding,
unjust, abusive, aggravating, bad, old creature.‘ Ch. Dickens
Two- step epithets are so called because the process of qualifying seemingly passes two
stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification itself, as in ‗an
unnaturally mild day‘ A. Hutchinson or ‗a pompously majestic female‘ Ch. Dickens Two-step
epithets have a fixed structure of Adverb + Adjective model.
Phrase epithets always produce an original impression. E.g. ‗the sunshine-in-the breakfast-
room smell‘ J. Baldwin, ‗a move-if-you-dare expression‘ J. Greenwood.
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Inverted epithets are based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical:
logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. ‗the toy of a girl‘ (a small
toylike girl) ‗the kitten of a woman‘ (a kittenlike woman)
Effect: The epithet makes a strong impact on the reader, so that he begins to see and evaluate
things as the writer wants to.
Antonomasia is a stylistic device, in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or
when a common noun serves as individualizing name. E.g.: ‗He took little satisfaction in telling
each Mary, shortly after she arrived, something…‘ (Th. Dreiser) (each Mary =any woman)
‗There are three doctors in an illness like yours. I don‘t mean only myself, my partner and the
radiologist who does your X-rays, the three I‘m referring to are Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh
Air.‘ (D. Cusack)
Another type of antonomasia is presented by the so-called ‗speaking names‘ – names whose
origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. (Mr. Snake; Island Leap-High) It is created
mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (Dr. Fresh Air) or phrases (Mr.
What‘s his name). Effect: used for exaggeration; to attract the reader‘s attention; to emphasize
statements
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration. Used sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the
attention to a message that you want to emphasize. E.g.: I was so hungry, I could eat an
elephant. I have told you a thousand times.
Understatement is the deliberate presentation of something as being much less important,
valuable etc. than it really is. A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened
to sound more polite. Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language
(especially British English) used in everyday-life situations. E.g.: I know a little about running a
company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.) I think we have slightly different
opinions on this topic. (instead of: I don't agree with you at all.)
Both a hyperbole and an understatement signal the emotional background of the utterance.
Syntactical level
One-word sentences possess a very strong emphatic impact, for their only word obtains both
the word and the sentence stress. Abrupt changes from short sentences to long ones and then
back again, create a very strong effect of tension and suspense for they serve to arrange a
nervous, uneven, ragged rhythm of the utterance. E.g.: ‗They could keep the Minden Street
Shop going until they got the notice to quit; which mightn‘t be for two years. Or they could wait
and see what kind of alternative premises were offered. If the site was good. –If. Or. And, quite
inevitably, borrowing money.‘ (J. Braine)
Attachment – the second part of the utterance is separated from the first one by a full stop,
though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong. It is often connected with the
help of conjunction. The second part appears as an afterthought and is often connected with the
beginning of the utterance with the help of a conjunction. The second part of the utterance
obtains its own stress and intonation. E.g.: ‗It wasn‘t his fault. It was yours. And mine. I now
humbly beg you to give me the money with which to buy meals for you to eat. And hereafter do
remember it: the next time I shan‘t beg. I shall simply starve.‘ (S. Lewis)
Detachment – singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation.
The word-order is not violated, but secondary members obtain their own stress and intonation.
E.g.: ‗She was crazy about you. In the beginning.‘ (R.P. Warren)
Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. Often ellipsis is met
close to dialogue, in author‘s introductory remarks commenting the speech of the characters. It is
usually used for reflecting the natural omissions characterizing oral colloquial speech. E.g.: ‗In
manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind.‘ ‗His forehead
was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all on one side.‘ (Ch. Dickens)
One-member sentences are sentences consisting only of a nominal group, which is
semantically and communicatively self-sufficient. In creative prose one-member sentences are
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mostly used in descriptions (of nature, interior, appearance, etc.), where they produce the effect
of a detailed but laconic picture foregrounding its main components; and as the background of
dialogue, mentioning the emotions, attitudes, moods of the speakers. E.g.: Malay Camp. A row
of streets crossing another row of streets. Mostly narrow streets. Mostly dirty streets. Mostly
dark streets. (P. Abrahams)
Polysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions. E.g.: ‗By the time he had got all the bottles
and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and spoons and things piled up on big
trays, he was getting very hot, and red in face, and annoyed.‘ (A. Tolkien)
Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions. Words are not linked by conjunctions;
they are separated only by commas. E.g.: ‗With these hurried words Mr. Bob Sawyer pushed the
postboy on one side, jerked his friend into the vehicle, slammed the door, put up the steps,
wafered the bill on the street-door, locked it, put the key into his pocket, jumped into the dickey,
gave the word for starting. (Ch. Dickens.) Effect: Both polysyndeton and asyndeton have a
strong rhythmic impact.
Repetition is a repeating words or phrases. Words or phrases are repeated throughout the
text to emphasize certain facts or ideas. E.g.: Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to
an end! ―I wonder how many miles I've fallen by this time?‖ she said aloud. Down, down, down.
There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. (L. Carroll)
Anaphora is a stylistic device denoting successive clauses or sentences starting with the
same word(s). The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus,
the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence. E.g.: A man
without ambition is dead. A man with ambition but no love is dead. A man with ambition and
love for his blessings here on earth is ever so alive. (Pearl Bailey) Anaphora is often used in
conjunction with parallelism or climax.
Parallelism: parallel sentence structure Successive clauses or sentences are similarly
structured. This similarity makes it easier for the reader / listener to concentrate on the message.
Authors usually use this stylistic device to draw the readers‘ attention to what they find
important.
E.g.: The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates.
The great teacher inspires. (William A. Ward)
Chiasmus a reversal in the order of words so that the second half of a sentence balances the
first half in inverted word order. E.g.: Love‘s fire heats water, water cools not love.
(Shakespeare) Effect: emphasis
Enumeration: the listing of words or phrases. It can stress a certain aspect e.g. by giving a
number of similar or synonymous adjectives to describe something. E.g.: Today many workers
find their labor mechanical, boring, imprisoning, stultifying repetitive, dreary and heartbreaking.
Inversion: a change of the usual word order (subject-verb-object). Stylistic inversion aims at
attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance.
E.g.: ‗Women are not made for attack. Wait they must. (T. Capote) In a vision once I saw. (Art
Hackbrett)
Rhetorical question a question to which the answer is obvious and therefore not expected.
In reality rhetorical questions are a kind of statement. E.g.: Don‘t we all love peace and hate
war? / Shouldn‘t we try to be friendlier towards each other? Rhetorical questions are used to
provoke, emphasize or argue.
Hypophora is a question raised and answered by the author / speaker.
The author / speaker raises a question and also gives an answer to the question. Hypophora is
used to get the audience's attention and make them curious. Often the question is raised at the
beginning of a paragraph and answered in the course of that paragraph. Hypophora can also be
used, however, to introduce a new area of discussion. E.g.: Why is it better to love than be
loved? It is surer. (Sarah Guitry)
Lexico-syntactical stylistic devices.
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Antithesis is contrasting relationship between two ideas. Antithesis emphasises the contrast
between two ideas. The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the
reader's / listener's attention directly to the contrast. It causes the reader to make the comparison
of the two ideas, to see the complexity of two ideas, and also to emphasize the ideas.
E.g.: That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong) To err is
human; to forgive, divine. (Pope)
Climax: a figure of speech in which a series of words or expressions rises step by step,
beginning with the least important and ending with the most important. The term may also be
used to refer only to the last item in the series. E.g.: We strive for the good, aim for the better,
and seize the best. Effect: to increase tension, emphasize importance
Anticlimax the sudden fall from an idea of importance or dignity to something unimportant
or ridiculous in comparison, especially at the end of a series. E.g.: The bomb completely
destroyed the cathedral, several dozen houses and my dustbin.Effect: surprise, humour
Simile a kind of comparison in which two things are compared because they have something
in common though they are in all other respects different. The imaginative comparison is
explicitly made with the help of like or as.
E.g.: She walks like an angel. / I wandered lonely as a cloud. (Wordsworth) Effect: conveys a
vivid picture to the mind by linking up unrelated objects
Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive
evaluation. The first component of litotes is always the negative particle ‗not‘, while the second,
always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word to a negative phrase.
Understatement, often ironical, expressing an affirmative by the negative of its contrary E.g.:
she is not stupid (= she is quite clever) Effect: emphasis
Periphrasis – is using of roundabout form of expression instead of simpler one, i.e. using a
more or less syntactical structure instead of a word. Longer phrasing may be used instead of a
possible shorter and plainer form of expression. The main function of periphrases is to convey a
purely individual perception of the described object. To achieve this generally accepted
nomination of the object is replaced by the description of one of its features or qualities, which
seems to the author most important for the characteristic of the object.
E.g.: ‗The villages were full of women who did nothing but fight against dirt and hunger and
repair the effects of friction on clothes.‘ (A. Bennett)
Euphemism is hiding the real nature of something unpleasant by using a mild or indirect
term for it. E.g.: ―He has passed away.‖ instead of ―He has died.” / ―the underprivileged‖ instead
of “the poor” Effect: to avoid bluntness, to be polite
MISCELLANEOUS
Allusion - a reference to a famous person or event; may be literary, historical, biblical,
mythological, etc. If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know
background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene)
in the readers‘ minds. E.g.: the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean
Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dicken‘s ―Christmas Carol‖) The software included a Trojan
Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) Effect: Allusions in writing help
the reader to visualize what's happening by evoking a mental picture. But the reader must be
aware of the allusion and must be familiar with what it alludes to.
Parenthesis means additional information. The normal progression of a sentence is
interrupted by extra information or explanations enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The
extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence.
E.g.: We (myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat 'Lynn', a
Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays' Chirk boatyard.
Note: Depending on the importance attached to it, additional information can be enclosed in
brackets, commas or dashes.
Brackets - not important Connor (Amy's boyfriend) bought the tickets.
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Commas – neutral Connor, Amy's boyfriend, bought the tickets.
Dashes – emphasized Connor–Amy's boyfriend–bought the tickets.
Points of View
First-person narrator. The narrator tells the story from his / her point of view (I). It is a limited
point of view as the reader will only know what the narrator knows. The advantage of the first
person narration is that the narrator shares his / her personal experiences and secrets with the
reader so that the reader feels part of the story. E.g. Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre
Third-person narrator. The narrator is not part of the plot and tells the story in the third
person (he, she). Usually the narrator is all-knowing (omniscient narrator): he / she can switch
from one scene to another, but also focus on a single character from time to time. E.g. Charles
Dickens: Oliver Twist
The third-person narrator can also be a personal narrator (point of view of one character) who
tells the story in the third person (he, she), but only from the central character's point of view.
This point of view is rarely used. E.g. James Joyce: Ulysses
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