Lesson 29
ГРАММАТИКА: Причастие и причастный оборот в функции обстоятель
ства. Независимый причастный оборот.
Section I
Ex. 1. Practise your reading.
The temperature remaining constant, the fraction of liquid molcculcs
with enough kinetic energy to evaporate remains the same, and evaporation
continues.
Ex. 2. State what parts of speech the following words belong to:
vapour, vaporous, vaporablc, vaporization, vaporizability, vaporize,
evaporate, evaporation, evaporative, evaporator
Ex. 3. Define the meanings of the word until in the following sentences:
1. Continue heating until the solution evaporates completely. 2. Don’t
do anything until I comc. 3. Day after day he works until night.
4. Evaporation continues until no liquid is left. 5. It was not until the atomic
theory was established that chcmisuy became a nature science founded on
scicntific principles. 6. It was not until March 1869 that the paper on the
periodic table was presented at the meeting of the Russian chcmical society.
7. Let us wait for him until 9 o’clock and if he doesn’t comc, wc shall go
away. 8. There is no suitable technique until now.
Ex. 4. Analyse the following sentence:
The temperature remaining constant, evaporation continues at a
constant rate.
Text 29 A
Liquid-Vapour Equilibrium
A liquid o f relatively low boiling temperature, when placed in a
container open to the atmosphere, will eventually evaporate entirely.
Remembering that molcculcs in the liquid arc “bound" by attractive forces
to their neighbours, wc might ask why some arc able to overcome these
forces and leave the liquid spontaneously. The answer lies in a consideration
1 О Л
o f the possible magnitudes of molccular kinetic energies, for these, as wc
have already mentioned, range from very low to very high values, and arc
distributed according to the Maxwcll-Boltzmann law. Therefore, even if
the average potential energy which binds the molcculcs to the liquid is
substantial, there arc always some molcculcs which have enough kinetic
energy to overcome the binding forces and enter the vapour. According to
the Maxwcll-Boltzmann law, the fraction of the molcculcs which have kinetic
energies greater than some minimum value e, the value required for the
molcculcs to leave the liquid, is proportional to the Boltzmann factor, e*t/ir.
Therefore, the temperature remaining constant, the fraction of liquid
molcculcs with enough kinctic energy to evaporate remains the same, and
evaporation continues. The vessel being open to the atmosphere, vapour
molcculcs arc swept away, and evaporation continues until no liquid is left.
Now, let us analyse what happens when a liquid is placcd in a closed
evacuated container. Immediately, the liquid starts to evaporate at a rate
which is primarily determined by the fraction o f molcculcs which have
enough kinctic energy to overcome attractive forces and leave the surfacc.
Initially, the rate of condensation is zero, there being no molcculcs in the
vapour. As long as the temperature stays constant, evaporation continues
at a constant rate, and the number o f molcculcs in the vapour phase
increases. Consequently, the rate of condensation starts to increase, for as
the pressure of the vapour grows, the number of gas molecules which
collidc with and reenter tlic liquid surfacc also increases.
The time dcpcndcncc of the evaporation and condensation rates is worth
considering. While growing, the condensation rate eventually bccomcs
equal to the rate of evaporation. At this time, the number of molcculcs
which enter and which leave the vapour per unit time is the same, and,
consequently, the pressure of the vapour stops increasing and remains
constant. If the system is left undisturbed at a fixed temperature, evaporation
and condensation continue at equal rates, and the pressure of the vapour
remains unchanged. This, then, is a situation of equilibrium between the
two phases. Note particularly that at equilibrium, evaporation and
condensation do not stop, but that the constancy of the equilibrium vapour
pressure is a conscqucncc of these opposing processes proceeding at equal
rates. Thus wc say that phase equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
Words and Word-Combinations to Be Memorized
analyse, attractive, bind, constant, dependence, initial, magnitude, note,
primarily, proportional, situation, spontaneous, substantial, it was not until...
that, not until, vessel, zero
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents Гог the following:
evaporate, entirely, overcome the forces, leave the liquid, the magnitude
of the energy, range from... to, substantial, overcome the binding forces,
be proportional to, remain the same, start immediately, the dependence is
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worth considering, bccomc equal to, per unit time, consequently, at a fixed
temperature, remain unchanged, opposing processes
Ex. 6. Give the English equivalents for the following:
относительно низкая температура, поместить в сосуд, преодолеть
силы притяжения, самопроизвольно, средняя потенциальная энергия,
открытый сосуд, давайте проанализируем, начинать испаряться, пер
воначально, с постоянной скоростью, давление пара растет, положе
ние равновесия
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with articles where ncccssary.
1. Let us analyse what happens when ... liquid is placed in ... closed
evacuated container. 2. As long as ... temperature remains constant, ...
evaporation continues a t ... constant rate. 3. As ... pressure o f... vapour
grows,... number o f ... gas molcculcs returning t o ... liquid also increases.
4
time dependence o f... evaporation and condensation rates should be
considered. S. At equilibrium,... evaporation and condensation do not stop.
Ex. 8. Give synonyms for the following:
magnitude, mention, substantial, fraction, remain, place, primarily,
initially, increase, equal
Ex. 9. Give antonyms for the following:
low, open, leave, minimum, the same, continue, container, immediately,
start, also, consequently
Ex. 10. Translate the scntcnccs into Russian.
1.
Heating the substancc, one must be very attentive. 2. While moving,
molcculcs collide with each other. 3. When at the laboratory, one must
observe safety rules. 4. Our lecturer being ill, wc had no Iccture yesterday.
5. Our assumption confirmed, wc could continue the experiment. 6. The
Iccturc being over, wc shall have a long break for dinner. 7. If present in
air in larger amounts than 1 in 20,000 by volume, ozone is irritant and
poisonous. 8. Practically, all acids when pure arc polar molccular structures.
9. Having made a number of experiments with calcium and sulphuric acid
at the temperature of 40°C, the Russian engineer Petrov was the first to
put forward the problem of chcmical activation. 10. One must be very
carcful when heating potassium chlorate. 11. Any clement when combining
with oxygen forms an oxide. 12. While dealing with chemicals in a
laboratory, one can’t do without such apparatus as funnels, beakers and so
on. 13. Once discovered, the periodic system of the elements received
much scicntific attention. 14. Unless otherwise stated, volumes of gases
always refer to standard conditions of temperature and pressure. 15. No
substancc can be considered chemically dry unless specially treated.
16. Large pieces of sodium may produce dangerous explosions if plaecd
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0n water. 17. Sodium hydroxide is prepared industrially by two general
jpcthods, the oldest being the reaction of sodium carbonate and calcium
hydroxide. 18. Hydrogen peroxide being added to an acidified solution o f
potassium permanganate, bubbles of gas arc evolved, the gas evolved being
oxygen. 19. The formula of a compound being known, wc can calculate
its molccular weight. 20. The liquid state being intermediate between the
solid and gaseous state, tlic properties of the liquids show similarities to
those of both solids and gases. 21. Cobalt and nickel arc much more resistant
to atmospheric oxidation than iron, with nickel being especially resistant.
22. Considered from this point of view, the reaction mcchanism seems to
depend only on the following three factors. 23. Having analysed the data,
the author found that they were in agreement with the theory. 24. Having
been heated to I00°C, water began to boil. 25. Having finished the
experiment, we must proccss the data. 26. Exccpt where otherwise stated,
the measurements were taken at room temperature. 27. Other things being
equal, pressure grows proportionately to the temperature. 28. Having
discovered the law of periodicity of the chcmical elements, Mendeleyev
made his greatest contribution to the development o f chcmistry.
29. Studying the properties of any substancc, the chcmist has to perform a
number of experiments. 30. Lavoisier (1745-1794), believing oxygen to
be a constituent of all acids, gave it the name oxygen (Greek: acid-former).
Ex. 11. Translate the scntcnccs into English without using a dictionary.
1. Если жидкость с низкой температурой кипения находится в
открытом сосуде, она в конце концов полностью испарится. 2. Моле
кулы жидкости связаны с соседними молекулами силами притяже
ния. 3. Некоторые молекулы обладают достаточной кинетической
энергией для того, чтобы преодолеть силы связывания и перейти в
пар. 4. При прочих равных условиях, пока температура остается по
стоянной, испарение продолжается с постоянной скоростью. 5. Если
жидкость находится в закрытом сосуде, необходимо рассмотреть про
цесс конденсации.
Ex. 12. Answer the following questions:
1. What happens with a liquid if it is placcd in an open container?
2. What forccs act between the molcculcs in a liquid? 3. Under what
conditions can some molcculcs leave the liquid? 4. What happens if a
liquid is placcd in a closed evacuated container? 5. What docs the rate of
condensation depend upon? 6. What situation is callcd equilibrium
between the liquid and vapour phases?
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