СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1
http://top.rbc.ru/economics/30/06/2014/933408.shtml
2
Международное исследование Фонда «Посткризисный мир»: доклад «Перспектива-
2050. Новая политико-экономическая карта».
3
Международное исследование Фонда «Посткризисный мир»: доклад «Модели
посткризисного развития: глобальная война или новый консенсус», стр. 15.
4
Джеймс Вулфенсон, экс-глава Всемирного банка: Казахстан может занять центральное
место между Западом и Востоком. http://sk.kz/topblog/view/187/
5
http://www.ng.ru/cis/2014-03-12/6_nazarbaev.html
6
Halford Mackinder: The Geographical Pivot of History, in: Geographical Journal, 23, 1904.
(Халфорд Маккиндер: Географическая точка опоры в истории. В журнале
"Географический журнал", № 23, 1904)
7
Теория Хартленда. http://school149.avers-telecom.ru/dlrstore/00000c51-1000-4ddd-517d-
3600483aebf5/objects/02-4-1/2406.png
ТҮЙІН
Мақалада дағдарыстан кейінгі әлемнің жағдайын зерттеушілер мен сарапшылардың
көзқарастарына талдау жасалады. Ол зерттеулерде Қазақстанға жетекші рөл беріледі. Еліміз
бүгінде халықаралық қатынастардың толымды қатысушысы, акторы болып отыр. Қазақстанның
бейбітшілікті нығайту жолындағы бастамалары әлемде жоғары бағаға ие болды. Еуразия
құрылығының ортасында орналасқан республика Азия мен Еуропаның арасындағы дәнекердің
рөлін географиялық ғана емес, саяси, экономикалық тұрғыдан атқарып отыр.
RESUME
The author of the article analyzes the results of studies of professional analysts on a post-crisis
world. Kazakhstan in these studies is given the leading role. The state has become the de facto
independent actor in international relations. Peace initiatives of our country and our leader are recognized
and appreciated around the world. Our country, being situated in the heart of the Eurasian continent,
serves as a bridge between the East and the West, but not in a geographical sense, namely the political
and economic dimensions.
32
UDC 327
A.A. Zhumadilova
M. Auesov south Kazakhstan state
university senior lecturer
S.M. Turkeeva
M. Auesov south Kazakhstan state
university, Master of history
The Sultanate
of Oman in the system
of inter-Arab
Relations
Abstract
The study of the Sultanate of Oman,
understanding the factors that determine its national
interests and objectives of foreign policy, the study
of practical steps to implement them, understanding
the strengths and weaknesses of his policy is topical
and necessary for the scientific and practical points
of view.
This allows a better understanding of the
foreign policy of Oman, the priority directions of
foreign policy, the causes of success and failure, to
predict reasonably the possibility of further
development of the foreign policy course of the
country and the situation in the Middle East as a
whole. In the scientific article the basic aspects of
foreign policy activities in Oman, relationship with
the countries of the region and the Cooperation
Council for the Arab States of the Gulf are
examined.
Keywords: Sultanate of Oman, the Persian
Gulf, foreign policy, inter-Arab relations
The Persian Gulf is considered to be a major
habitat implementation of Oman's foreign policy.
Here is that the most pronounced political activity of
the Sultanate, and from the situation in the region
national security, stability and prosperity of the
country are interrelated. The major principles of the
foreign policy of Oman are due to in the process of
conflict resolution and other issues of the Gulf. One
of the most important tasks of the Oman's diplomacy
was the development of security concept of the
Persian Gulf. Let's try to reveal the essence of this
concept and show its evolution due to changes in the
world order and regional scale.
Priority attention of Oman's diplomacy to the
region under consideration is also due to
accumulated rich historical experience of this small
country, which took place both through conflict, and
through cooperation with various international forces
in the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. In most
cases Oman was the only Arab party of certain
events.
In early 1971, seeking to emerge from
international isolation Qaboos bin Said paid visits in
number of heads of conservative Arab regimes
urging them political support and meet the requests
for the Sultanate in PAH. In December 1971 he
visited Riyadh, after which the Saudis stood
completely on his side, breaking a previous
33
relationship with bin Ali Ghalib and other supporters of the Imamate.
Sultan declared in its official statements commitment to pan-Arabism and pan-Islamism,
expressing solidarity with the struggle of the Arab people against Israeli aggression, for the
provision of the Palestinian Arab people of their legitimate national rights. On September 29th,
1971, with the assistance of a number of Arab regimes Sultanate of Oman became a member of
the PAH, and on October 7th became a member of the United Nations.
Problems of the Middle East and the Persian Gulf take an important place in Oman foreign
policy. Oman's authorities declared their commitment to Arab unity, supported by pan-Arab
Middle East settlement platform, adopted in 1982 in Fez. Oman condemns Israel's aggressive
policy, which was under Tel Aviv responsibility for the endless tensions in the Middle East. He
condemned the Israeli aggression in Lebanon in 1982 and demanded complete withdrawal of the
Israeli troops from the country.
However, Oman's Middle East policy was markedly different from even his neighbors in
the Arabian Peninsula.
In particular, Oman supported the Camp David Accords United States, Israel and Egypt,
welcomed the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel (March 1979). Oman had refused to be
engaged in collective sanctions against Sadat's regime (November 1978), a decision which was
taken at a meeting of the Baghdad's Arab Summit and confirmed at the meeting of the Foreign
Ministers of Economy and Finance of the Arab countries in March 1979. Within the Oman's
authorities, who were elected to cooperate with Sadat regime in early 1980 in Cairo he sent a
military delegation and signed a secret treaty of mutual defense. According to this document, the
parties had committed to provide each other with the necessary assistance in the event of military
threat to any of them. At the request of President Sadat Sultan of Oman sent his military
specialists, as well as provided assistance to rearm Oman's army [2, p.16].
After the assassination of Sadat and the coming to power in Egypt of President Mubarak
Oman began persistently to push other Arab countries to restore relations with Cairo on the
"unconditional" basis, i.e. without putting forward as a precondition for this refusal of Egypt
from the Camp, i.e. David Accords. He supported the agreement between Amman Jordan's King
Hussein and Arafat, Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee on February 11, 1985 entered
into conflict with the decisions of Fez meeting of Arab States’ heads and the sessions of the
Palestinian National Council. In general, they approved the initiative of Mubarak to hold
direction Jordanian - Palestinian negotiations with Israel brokered by the United States of
America.
Going into the formed Cooperation Council for Arab States of the Gulf in 1981, Oman
adhered to the deepening of integration between its members, particularly in the area of defense.
Sharing the thesis put forward by the GCC that the responsibility for security in the Persian Gulf
should be held directly in the region, the Omani authorities nevertheless indicate the inability of
the Council to solve this problem, allowing for the possibility of "collaboration" with Western
countries.
Considering that Oman is a member of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the
Gulf (GCC), the sultanate is coordinating the construction of its armed forces with the
organization and support of its Constitution, which states that the members of the GCC must:
- Oppose any military intervention in the affairs of foreign countries in the region, from
whatever quarter;
- Disagree with the presence in the region of foreign military bases and fleets;
- Create standalone armed forces of the Member States of the Council and coordinate their
actions in order to provide support to member countries of the GCC on its own armed forces in
the protection of their safety and for the sake of stability in the region [3, p.157].
Together with other members of the GCC Oman stands for peaceful settlement of the Iran-
Iraq conflict and supports the international and Arab mediation efforts in this direction.
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After the start of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Oman actively campaigned for a peaceful
resolution of the crisis and made a number of diplomatic steps in this direction. However, when
it became clear that this problem could not be solved in peaceful way, Oman, together with other
countries in the GCC, had the most effective support to the international force for the preparation
of "Operation Desert Storm", which resulted in Kuwait, was liberated. Moreover, it was Oman
that initiated the idea of creating 100,000th contingent of armed forces under unified command
of the GCC in order to avoid a situation in the future, when the Gulf countries had been forced to
seek military assistance from the United States and other developed countries [4, p.5]. At the
same time, trying not to lose its position in relations with Iraq, Oman in the mid 90s repeatedly
expressed the opinion about the need to mitigate the UN sanctions imposed on Iraq, and in
March 1998, Sultan Qaboos received Iraqi Minister of Justice, calling in negotiating the Iraqi
leadership to comply fully with all the requirements of the UN to speed up the lifting of
sanctions.
It should be noted that in the 90s Omani government was very actively engaged in the
problem of demarcation in order to avoid possible disputes with its neighbors on this issue. For
example, in November 1992, Oman after 2 years of negotiations signed an agreement on the
final demarcation of the borders with Saudi Arabia, and in May 1999 - with the UAE. So far,
Oman had an agreement on the demarcation of land and sea borders with all neighboring
countries, except Pakistan, which had not yet reached an agreement on the definition of the
maritime border [5].
In general, after coming to power of the Sultan Qaboos, Oman developed an active
diplomacy, trying to get out of isolation on the international arena, which was the result of
extreme conservatism of his father, who once passed into the hands of British diplomacy to
represent Oman in the international arena. Sultan Qaboos, on the contrary, took an active part in
diplomatic affairs of the state.
For a number of international issues of common Oman took the whole constructive
position. It expresses its commitment to peace and security of nations. Oman in favor of ending
the arms race was for banning nuclear weapons and for the usage of outer space for peaceful
purposes. He supported the establishment of nuclear-free zones in various parts of the world,
including the Middle East, and the Indian Ocean as a peace zone.
Although the main place in the foreign policy of the country is working on its participation
in the activities of the GCC, which Oman coordinates its foreign policy action, the position of
Oman in the Middle East conflict is still characterized by a number of features. So, in April 1994
Oman visited the Israeli Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, which had been the first official
visit to one of the Gulf countries for Israelis since 1948. In December of that year, Israeli Prime
Minister Yitzhak Rabin paid an official visit to Oman where he held talks with Sultan Qaboos
about the Middle East peace process, and in February 1995, the two countries agreed to establish
diplomatic relations on a "reduced level", i.e. at the level of representations, not ambassadors.
Agreement on the opening of such offices was signed in January 1996, in April of the same year
Oman visited the new Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres, and in August Oman opened its sales
office in Israel.
After the change of government in Israel, Oman, according to the decision of the Arab
League, protested Netanyahu government due to the construction of Jewish residential
neighborhoods in East Jerusalem, suspended in April 1997 its relations with Israel. In July Oman
announced the opening of its office in the center of the Palestinian National Authority - Gaza
City, and in early 1999 President Yasser Arafat, the Palestinian Authority, visited Oman [6].
Omani government realizes the importance of the position of the country allowing its
territory to control the Strait of Hormuz, the entrance to the Persian Gulf and through which 40
percent of the world's oil traffic. Considering this, Oman has prioritized the defense zone of the
Strait of Hormuz. However, the military doctrinal Sultanate is based on the fact that the country
will not conduct wars of aggression and officially Oman’s potential enemy is not defined.
35
Sultanate advocates the creation of a reliable system of regional security in the Gulf region, with
the exception of the possibility of the armed conflict here. In Muscat in favor of a balanced
distribution of forces in the Gulf Saudi Arabia and Iran equilibrated to each other. After the
merger in May 1990 North and South Yemen before sultanate was a problem of border
demarcation with the new state, the document on the implementation of which was signed in
December 1992. Then, Oman financed the construction of the highway between the two
countries and in June 1995 Oman and Yemen Arab Republic officially held the demarcation
process, after which the 15,000th Omani troops left the disputed border areas. In May 1997
Oman and Yemen Arab Republic at a ceremony in Muscat solemnly signed the International
Date card, thereby removing the border controversy for many years existed between them [7, p.
82].
Today, the available Oman settled the disputed border issues with Yemen (1992) and the
UAE (2003). Small differences remained with Saudi Arabia, but they had not had a significant
effect on bilateral relations, especially since as early as 1992. Oman and KSA signed an
agreement which fixed the need to solve all existing problems between the two countries by
political means.
One of the priorities of Oman's foreign policy is due to the Arabian monarchies in the
framework of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC). Oman continues
to actively participate in the activities of the organization, it is a supporter of the further
development of integration processes within the framework of the Cooperation Council. Muscat
GCC supports solutions on major regional and international issues, at the same time does not
want to establish Oman Saudi hegemony in the organization. Protests and strikes in Oman earlier
this year caused concern in the Arabian monarchy. In March, the GCC Foreign Ministers
decided to allocate $ 10 billion to Oman on social programs and housing in order to reduce
arisen internal tension in the Sultanate. At the same time, along with Qatar, Oman did not follow
the example of KSA, UAE and Kuwait sent troops to Bahrain in March 2011 to participate in the
suppression of the country erupted in mass anti-government protests. Note that the elements are
stored in Oman suspicion and distrust in relationships with some Arabian monarchy. This,
experts say, contributes emphasized in Muscat close relations with Iran, which annoys the
neighbors, especially in the UAE. In early 2011 the government of the Sultanate reported
disclosure in the country espionage and anti-government group that "undermine the state
system", accusing the Emirates in supporting the criminals. However, further development of
this incident did not take place.
Important place in the diplomatic activity of Oman who has always had relations with Iran
deteriorated sharply after the anti-Shah revolution. In March 1991 contributed to Oman,
however, the restoration of diplomatic relations took place between Iran and Saudi Arabia, and
in September 1992 Oman signed a new Iran economic and trade agreement that would
significantly expand ties between the two countries.
Oman - Iranian relations have deep historical roots. The two countries are linked not only
by geographical proximity, but also by a vital communication -rodstvennye tribes living on the
shores of the Persian Gulf. At the beginning of the 1970s then the Shah Sultan Qaboos gave
considerable assistance with the military, which helped him cope with the insurgency in the
province of Dhofar [8]. Omani leadership recognizes the enormous strategic and political
influence of Iran in the region due to its strategic location, population, economic and military
potential. In addition, Iran shares with Oman control of the Strait of Hormuz, i.e. "Acts in the
field of vital importance for strategic and political interests of the Sultanate." Today Oman sees
Iran an important political and economic partner, and bilateral relations have been further
developed. In 2009, Sultan Qaboos made the first after the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979
official visit to Teheran. Moreover, this visit was in the days of the Teheran inauguration of
President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad after his re-election to the post, which actually meant
recognition of the Oman legality results of the past election in Iran, which raised serious doubts
36
in the West. Oman recognizes the right of Iran to the peaceful use of nuclear energy, but does not
approve of the alleged intentions of Iran to develop nuclear weapons. At the same time in Muscat
they believe that a possible US military operation to destroy Iran's nuclear capacity will lead to
destabilization of the situation in the Middle East, especially in the Persian Gulf. In 2010 Oman
and Iran signed a new agreement on cooperation in the military sphere. It provides inter alia joint
exercises of the Armed Forces of the two countries, successful development of trade and
economic ties. So, for the past two years the Iranian exports to Oman increased by about 40
percent. Another important factor is that, unlike other Arab monarchies, Omani-Iranian relations
are not a complicated Shiite factor, i.e. the Sultanate has no large Shiite community. The modern
internal - and foreign policy experience in Oman, gained over the years that has passed since the
coming to power of the Sultan Qaboos in 1970 is also important. First of all, it is an armed
conflict in Dhofar [9] to support the countries of the socialist camp and its supporters in the
region. Then the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez gave birth to a vacuum in the
regional balance of power. We should also mention the discovery of new oil fields, which led to
the inclusion of the region in the strategic calculations of international forces Sultan Qaboos has
paid serious attention to the establishment of relations with major neighbors - Saudi Arabia.
Intermediaries in the United Kingdom and the United States were made. As a result, a number of
territorial concessions by Oman promise to support the policy of King Faisal in the Arabian
Peninsula. Sultan Qaboos has received both political, financial and military support needed to
combat the national - liberation movement to stabilize the situation in the country.
Sultan's foreign policy had two main objectives: to recognize and strengthen his regime in
the Arab world and to obtain support of conservative regimes in the region to fight against the
national liberation movement in Dhofar [10, p. 164]. To achieve this Sultan Qaboos made a
number of concessions in Saudi Arabia. During his visit to Riyadh in December 1970 he made a
number of territorial concessions and expressed full support for the policy of Saudi Arabia in the
Gulf [11, p. 126]. In response Saudi Arabia has stopped all forms of assistance to the rebels of
the Omani and blocked all the ways of their supplies which passed through the desert of Rub al-
Ha-li. At the same time, Saudi Arabia has pledged to give financial assistance to Oman [12,
p.186]. At this time Saud-Omani ties had gone far beyond bilateral relations. Immediately after
the establishment of diplomatic relations at the end of 1971 the Saudi rulers and the Sultan of
Oman began to closely coordinate their actions to combat the national liberation movement in
the south of the Arabian Peninsula. Arab press wrote of a wider conspiracy, aims to overthrow
the progressive regime in Southern Yemen and rejection of her province of Hadramaut [12, p.
110]. During this period frequent invasion force of mercenaries started in the territory of
Southern Yemen from Saudi Arabia. Overall from 1971 to 1973 there was a rapid convergence
of the two monarchies.
The Sultanate has always been known for its clear policy based on cooperation with all
countries on the basis of mutual respect, encouragement of dialogue and non-violence in dealing,
fraternal relations between states and stability. Balanced and dynamic policy of Oman became an
important factor of stability in the region. Suffice it to mention that the Sultanate of Oman was
one of the first initiators of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)
before other Arab states in the region realized the need for a regional alliance that would be able
to provide security in the area without the intervention of external forces. Sultanate settled all
territorial problems with neighboring countries, as Arab (UAE, Saudi settled Arabia, Yemen)
and Iran and was the initiator of peaceful resolution of conflicts in the region calls for the
immediate cessation of the Iran-Iraq war and the withdrawal of Iraq from Kuwait.
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