АҒЫЛШЫН ТІЛІН АУДИТОРИЯДА БАҚЫЛАУДЫҢ ТӘСІЛДЕРІ
ҚАБДОЛДАНОВА С.- магистрант
НАКИПБЕКОВА З. О. - оқытушы - магистр
Шымкент университеті
Қысқаша мазмұны: Мақалада Тілдік сыныптағы бақылау жұмыс орнында дамудың
зерттеу процедурасы немесе алдын-ала дайындалған мұғалімдерді оқыту құралы ретінде
қарастырылады.
Observation in the language classroom is treated either as a research procedure for in -
service professional development or as a learning tool for pre-service teachers. Hargreaves
suggests that the 1970s were a ‘notable decade’ for classroom studies thanks to the number of
projects and the wide range of methodological approaches, and he identified ‘three great
traditions’ of studying classrooms - systematic observation, ethnographic observation and
sociolinguistic studies. Sociolinguistics studies the aspects of linguistics applied toward the
connections between language and society. These aspects are not of prime interest for pre-service
classroom observation that is why I do not dwell upon this approach in this paper.
Hammersley proposes that systematic observation and ethnography are treated as ‘self-
contained and mutually exclusive paradigms’. The further description of both of these approaches
supports this idea. Croll illustrates some fundamental aspects of systematic observation as
follows: explicit purposes which are worked out before data collection; explicit and rigorous
categories and criteria for classifying phenomena; data should be presented in quantitative form
to be analysed with statistical techniques; any observer should record a particular event in an
identical fashion to any other. Ethnographic approach involves a complete cycle of events that
occur within the interaction between the society and environment. Lutz (1986:108) defines
ethnography as ‘a holistic, thick description of the interactive process involving the discovery of
important and recurring variables in the society as they relate to one another, under specific
conditions, and as they affect or produce certain results and outcomes in the society’. So,
systematic observation is described as highly eclectic studies of an event with pre-specified
categories and detailed analysis is presented in quantitative manner whereas ethnography
describes and interprets events holistically in their naturally occurring contexts. More detailed
characteristics of systematic and ethnographic approaches are provided in Chapter
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There is always the possibility of error in the observation process. Fassnacht reviews
Campbell’s classifications of errors in representing data in psychological and social studies.
Some of these errors frequently occur when making judgements and primarily concern language
behaviour:
error of central tendency error of leniency or generosity primacy or recency effect halo effect
logical error.
A first error occurs in using a rating scale. called the effect ‘central tendency’ in a series
of judgements about objectivity of quantifiable stimuli, when the large stimuli are underestimated
and the small ones overestimated.
An error of leniency or generosity could arise in making favourable verbal judgements
using personality scales. clarifies that in the personality scales a number of questions relating to
one particular personality trait are drawn together and the answers to these questions are given in
the form of ‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘sometimes’, ‘often’ which might not reflect objective reality.
A third error occurs as a result of the order in which perceptual events happen. The
problem is that in behaviour testing the first impression could have a distorting effect on later
data collection and thus lead to errors. Bailey admits that in diary keeping, events that are
embarrassing or painful when they occur ‘often lose their sting after weeks of reflection’.
A fourth error, halo effect, is described by Mandl when the evaluator ‘has the tendency
when judging a personality trait to be influenced by a general impression or a salient
characteristic’.
Logical errors or error of theory reveals due to the theoretical assumptions of the
observer. It is now widely accepted that observation is always ‘theory-laden’ He continues that
observations can not be ‘pure’, free from the influence of background theories or hypotheses or
personal hopes and desires. Ratcliffe supports this assumption in that ‘most research
methodologists are now aware that all data are theory-, method-, and measurement-dependent’.
As Bailey (1990:226) suggests in conducting 'pure research' it is better to avoid reading the
research literature in the field, to keep from biasing the results.
The item ‘observable’ in the definition given by Seliger and Shohamy mentioned above
emphasizes the problem of what items to be treated as observable in classroom setting. Thus,
Smith and Geoffrey (1968) make valid assertions criticising systematic observation systems:
The way the teacher poses his problems, the kind of goals and sub-goals he is trying to
reach, the alternatives he weighs … are aspects of teaching which are frequently lost to the
behavioural oriented empirical who focuses on what the teacher does to the exclusion of how he
thinks about teaching. Smith and Geoffrey
McIntyre and Macleod generalize the problem of observable items and limitation of data
obtained through systematic observation claiming that there is ‘no direct evidence on the actions
of participants which are not overt’. The detailed criticism of systematic observation is given in
Chapter The problem of accurate recording
Data collection, description procedures face problems of the accuracy and explicitness of
records. ‘The crucial problem is to be able to render interpretable the process of events and
behaviour as it occurs naturally’
Hutt and Hutt emphasise the difficulty of accurate description of the behaviour. They
emphasize the problem with the vocabulary choice in that there are many thousands of words
which describe motor and language behaviour but ‘unfortunately, the words are injunctive
concepts, learned by usage rather than by definition’ (Hutt and Hutt Other than that, it is
frequently found that some definitions are over encompassing in that they cover patterns of
behaviour for which ordinary language has two or more terms. Lofland and Lofland recommend
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employing behaviouristic and concrete vocabulary rather than abstract adjectives and adverbs,
which are based on paraphrase and general recall.
The problem of objective recording
Another problem with the written commentary to be discussed is the problem of
objectivity. All researchers agree that the data are often subjective, reflect personal impressions,
inferential and interpretative. Events may not be viewed the same way by different observers. ‘It
is common to find that witnesses to an accident give differing accounts of what happened’
Eisner defines objectivity as being ‘fair, open to all sides of the argument’. He considers
that to reduce subjectivity the observer must achieve correspondence not only in what s/he
perceives or understands but how she or he represents it. Schaffer continuous the problem of
vocabulary choice saying that there are some aspects of reality which can be described fairly
objectively and those which can only be described subjectively, and ‘it is difficult to know where
the borderline between objectivity and subjectivity lies’. Scheurich doubts in ‘the very existence
of gross material reality’. He claims that research mainly addresses interpretation of meaning or
constructions of ‘reality’.
To sum the problems with data recording I can suggest that an observer may describe and
interpret an event in subjective way due to personal bias, theoretical assumptions, s/he can
experience difficulty in the choice of an object/behaviour to observe and words to record an event
in accurate and explicit way.
An observer faces the dilemma in choosing systematic or ethnographic approaches. The
main problem of ethnographical approach lies in its very nature – it is so broad that it demands a
highly trained observer to do a competent and reliable observation. ‘An untrained observer may
be overwhelmed by the complexity of what goes on and not be able to focus on important events
in the classroom’ Pre-specified coding systems in systematic observation are exclusively
concerned with ‘what can be categorized or measured’. Thus they may distort or ignore the
qualitative features which they claim to investigate. At the same time limiting the attention of the
observer can help improve reliability.
Reliability and validity are the most important criteria for assuring the quality of the data
collection procedures. The criterion of reliability provides information on whether the data
collection procedure is ‘consistent and accurate’. The researchers suspect that observers may
unintentionally impose their own biases and impressions on the observed situation. Seliger and
Shohamy claim that for different types of data collection procedures different types of reliability
are relevant. Thus they determine for the ethnographic approach the following types:
inter-rater reliability (to examine to which different observers agree on the data collected from
the observation); test-retes reliability (to check stability of data collection over time);
regrounding (to repeat the data collection and compare both results); parallel form (to examine to
which extent two versions of the same data collection procedure are really collecting the same
data)
To assure reliability different methodologists suggest involving at least two observers to
carry a ‘sequential analysis’ or to achieve ‘inter-observer agreement’). The idea of the former
procedure is to carry out the analysis concurrently with data collection in the sense that ‘one may
‘step back’ from the data, so as to reflect on their possible meaning’ Thus further subsequent data
gathering will direct the observer either to abandon or pursue the original hypothesis. In the later
procedure two observers look at the same events from different locations to categorise these
events and compare the outcomes. Using systematic schemes with pre-specified categories they
refine, or ‘index’ the definitions and categories of observation by ‘applying in a consistent
manner the procedures for data selection, collection, grouping, inclusion, exclusion etc.’
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Just as there are different types of reliability, Seliger and Shohamy suggest that there are
different types of validity which provide ‘evidence’ for validity. Thus, their typology of
‘evidences’ of validity comprises
a)
evidence on content validity which demonstrates appropriateness of data
collection against the content to be measured;
b)
criterion validity which provides an indication as to whether the instrument can be
measured against some other criterion and compared with the previous results (concurrent
validity), and whether the procedure is capable of foretelling certain behaviour (predictive
validity);
c)
construct validity which examines whether the data collection procedure is a good
representation of and consistent with current theories underlying the variable being measured.
Chaudron gives another term to the content validity and suggests ‘treatment validity’
which relates to the process component of process-product study and demonstrates that the
treatment was in fact implemented and that it was identifiable different from whatever it was
being compared with.
For the results of the second language research Seliger and Shohamy identify internal and
external validity. They propose that a study has internal validity if the outcomes of the
observational data can be directly and unambiguously attributed to the treatment that is applied to
the observed group, and that the interpretation of these data is not dependent on the subjective
judgement of an individual researcher. Internal validity in this sense relates to three areas:
‘representativeness, retrievability, and confirmability of the data’ External validity involves the
extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized and applied to another situation and the
categories of the study are treated as basic, applied, and practical.
To achieve evidences of validity items or questions of an instrument must be analyzed in
the process of data collection. A researcher or observer should obtain information on whether the
items are of ‘low-inference’ or ‘high-inference’ too easy or too difficult, and whether the items
are phrased and easily understood by the respondents. All these aspects are recommended to
examine in the pilot phase of the research that is likely to be proved by evidences from a variety
of sources, such as additional questionnaire data from pupils or teachers, interviews, surveys.
Another way of examining the validity of observation is to ask colleagues to study the categories
and to define the purpose of the observation. Simpson and Tuson treat this method as a useful
check on face validity. Thus to achieve reliable and valid observation an evaluator should take
into account the spatial location of an observer, engage more than one observer, involve ‘low-
inference’ categories that do not require complex interpretation and check agreement of key
aspects against independent studies.
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