6. Discussion and Conclusions
The study investigated the effect of an intervention on boosting student’s writing outcomes at
19
grade 11 using a non-equivalent-groups design (NEGD). The crossover pattern reported in the results
suggests that the intervention caused improvement in writing outcomes among the experimental
group free of selection threats at least in as far as past the crossing point. The explanation for the
experimental group exceeding the control groups’ performance can be traced to the intervention
administered and not to chance. Gender, Language_grouping and their interactions did not have a
significant effect on writing outcomes at the level of testing. It suggests that students are equally
exposed to homogenous stimuli in relation to writing throughout the curriculum, which is good
practice. The mean difference between the Experiment and Control group was represented a nearly
24% improvement in writing outcomes from the pretest value of the experimental group who were
the beneficiaries of the intervention. A follow up study could switch the experimental and control
groups to further test the efficacy of the intervention. The study identified the needs of students to
be a deeper understanding of language and its application. Consequently the school setting beyond
the classroom needs to be formatted to increase opportunities to apply the English Language. This
exploratory study broke the ground for improving writing outcomes when students learn through the
process approach. It is replicable within the accessible NIS framework. Thus the study contributed to
the field of writing by developing a model around which an intervention and implementation strategy
can be developed and used. This study will act as a handy reference for teachers who desire to do a
quantitative study in relation to action research. It will contribute to the understanding and application
of rigor to professional assessment and evaluation.
7. Research References
1. Kolade A. T. The influence of process approach on English as second language students’
performances in essay writing //English Language Teaching. Ser. 5. №. 3. 2012. P.16.
2. Andrews R. et al. The effect of grammar teaching on writing development //British
Educational Research Journal. Ser. 32. №. 1. 2006. P. 39-55.
3. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change// Psychological
review. № 2. 1977. P.191.
4. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change //Psychological
review. Ser. 84. №.2. 1977. P.191.
5. Barkely R. The important role of executive functioning and self-regulation in ADHD.-
http://www.russellbarkley.org/factsheets/ADHD_EF_and_SR.pdf
(2015, March 8).
6. Bushe G. R. Appreciative inquiry: Theory and critique //The Routledge companion to
organizational change. 2011. P. 87-103.
7. Buzan T., & Buzan, B. How to mind map. M.: Thorsons, 2002.
8. Coursera. Crafting an effective writer: Tools of the Trade.- https://www.mooc-list.com /
course/crafting-effective-writer-tools-trade-coursera?static=true (1 Mar 2015).
9. Teachers Matter: Understanding Teachers’ Impact on Student Achievement. Santa
Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2012. http://www.rand.org/pubs/corporate_pubs/
CP693z1-2012-09. (2015, March 8).
10. Enyai P. C. Network relationship characteristics between companies operating
in the Republic of South Sudan.-http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:
833011/FULLTEXT02.pdf (2015, March 10).
11. Eow Y. L. et al. Appreciative Learning Approach: A New Pedagogical Option //International
Conference on Computers In Education. – 2010. – P. 607-614.
12. Hillocks Jr G. Research on written composition: New directions for teaching. – National
Council of Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyon Rd., Urbana, IL 61801 (Stock No. 40750,
20
5
$19.00 member, $24.75 nonmember)., 1986.
13. Hurwitz N., Hurwitz S. Words on Paper Is writing at risk? Written expression is the result
of ordered thought and the product of good teaching //American School Board Journal. Ser.
191. – №. 3. 2004. P. 16-20.
14. IELTS
guide
for
teachers.-
http://ielts.org/PDF/IELTS_Guide_For_Teachers_
BritishEnglish_Web.pdf (2015, March 10).
15. Integrated Programme of Development English Grade 11 Course Plan of Cambridge,
Faculty of Education, 2014.
16. Integrated Programme of Development Physics Grade 9 Course Plan. M.: University of
Cambridge, Faculty of Education, 2013.
17. International English Language Testing System. In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia.-. M.: University https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_English_
Language_Testing_System (2015, May 2).
18. Kirszner L., & Mandell S. The Concise Wadsworth Handbook. M.: WADSWORTH
CENGAGE Learning, 2013.
19. Klem A. M., Connell J. P. Relationships matter: Linking teacher support to student
engagement and achievement //Journal of school health. Ser. 74. №. 7. 2004. P. 262-273.
20. Klose L. M. G. Understanding and Fostering Achievement Motivation //Principal Leadership.
Ser. 9. – №. 4. 2008. P. 12-16.
21. Marks H. M. Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary,
middle, and high school years //American educational research journal. Ser. 37. №. 1. 2000
P. 153-184.
22. Martin W. E., Bridgmon K. D. Quantitative and statistical research methods: from hypothesis
to results. – John Wiley & Sons, 2012. – Ser. 42.
23. Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS). In-service Training Programme for teachers of
the Comprehensive schools of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Intermediate Level (2nd ed.).
Astana, AO: Centre for Pedagogic Measurements, 2012a
24. Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS). In-service Training Programme for the Pedagogic
Staff of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Intermediate Level (1st ed.). Astana, AO: Centre for
Pedagogic Measurements, 2012b
25. Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS). In-service Training Programme for the Pedagogic
Staff of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Advanced Level (1st ed.). Astana, AO: Centre for
Pedagogic Measurements, 2012c
26. Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS).Criteria-based assessment of learners’ achievements;
guidance for teachers of English at Grade 11. Astana, AO: Centre for Pedagogic
Measurements, 2014
27. Pajares F. Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the
literature //Reading &Writing Quarterly. Ser. 19. – №. 2. 2003. P. 139-158.
28. Paris S. G., Paris A. H. Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning //
Educational psychologist. Ser. 36. №. 2. 2001. P. 89-101.
29. Patrick H., & Ryan A. M. Identifying adaptive classrooms: Analyses of
measures of dimensions of the classroom social environment.- http://www.
childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Child_Trends-2003_03_12_PD_PD
ConfPatRyan.pdf (2015, March 10)
30. Peck J., & Coyle M. The student’s guide to writing: grammar, punctuation and spelling. M.:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
31. Ryan A. M., Patrick H. The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents’
motivation and engagement during middle school //American Educational Research Journal.
21
Ser.38. №. 2. 2001. P. 437-460.
32. Smith M. K. ‘Kurt Lewin, groups, experiential learning and action research’, the encyclopedia
of informal education, 2001.- http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm (2015, March 15)
33. State program of development and functioning of languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan
2011-2020 (Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan from June 29, 2011 №
110).- http://strategy2050.kz/en/page/gosprog5/ (2015, March 15)
34. Cf. Strategy “Kazakhstan 2030”, in: Nursultan Nazarbayev, Prosperity, Security
and Ever Growing Welfare of all the Kazakhstanis. Message of the President of
the country to the people of Kazakhstan.- http://www.akorda.kz/en/kazakhstan
/kazakhstan2030/strategy (2015, March 15)
35. Schwartz B. et al. Maximizing versus satisficing: happiness is a matter of choice //Journal
of personality and social psychology. Ser. 83. №. 5. 2002. P.11-78.
36. Sun C., Feng G. Process approach to teaching writing applied in different teaching models
//English Language Teaching. Ser. 2. №. 1. 2009. P.150.
37. Trochim W. M. K. Research methods: The concise knowledge base. – Atomic Dog
Publishing, 2005.
38. Trupe A. The writing process.- http://people.bridgewater.edu/~atrupe/ENG315/
process.htm (2015, March 15)
39. Trzeciak J., MacKay S. E. Study skills for academic writing. – Prentice Hall, 1994.
40.
Williams J. D. Preparing to teach writing: Research, theory, and practice. – Routledge,
2014.
41. Wyse D. Grammar for writing? A critical review of empirical evidence //British Journal of
Educational Studies. Ser. 49. №. 4. 2001. P. 411-427.
Bibliographical References
1. http://www.educationaspirant.com/education-tips/ielts/
2. http://www.cie.org.uk/images/157746-november-2012-question-paper-21.pdf
3. http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/English -
Language (8693)/8693_s06_qp_2.pdf
4. Sarchet D. Red-Marked Writing: High-Stakes Consequences on High School Writing
Education. – 2011.
5. http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-artslaw/cels/essays/languagete
aching/ProcessApproachtoWriting.pdf
6. http://www.appreciativeliving.com/files/Kelm_AI_Principle_Summary.pdf
7. http://www.mansis.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/A-Simple-Change-Model1
.pdf
22
5
USINg COmmUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES TO dEVELOp
ORAL fLUENCy
Tavilya Akimova
Centre of Excellence
Kazakhstan
Ключевые слова
Ағылшын тілін үйрету тәсілдері, оқытудың коммуникативтік тәсілі; коммуникативтік
тапсырмалар; тапсырманы орындауға негізделген оқу; айтылым
Методы обучения английскому языку, коммуникативный метод преподавания;
коммуникативно направленные задания; обучение, основанное на выполнении задания;
говорение
Different approaches to teaching English; Communicative language teaching; Communicative
activities; Task based learning, speaking
Аннотация
Берілген жұмыс тілдің коммуникативтік қызметін жүзеге асыратын түйінді дағдылардың
бірі ретінде сөйлеу дағдысын қалыптастыру мәселесін қарастырады. Мақала авторы шет
тілін оқытудың түрлі тәсілдерін қарастырып, соның ішінде қарым-қатынас міндеттерін шешу
үшін оқыту тілін пайдалану қажеттілігін туындататын шынайы өмір жағдаятын құратын
коммуникативтік оқыту тәсіліне егжей-тегжейлі тоқталған
Данная работа фокусируется на вопросе овладения навыком говорения, как одного
из ключевых навыков, осуществляющих коммуникативную функцию языка. Автор статьи
рассматривает различные подходы в преподавании иностранного языка, и более подробно
останавливается на методе коммуникативного обучения, который создает ситуации реальной
жизни, делающей необходимым использование языка обучения для решения коммуникативных
задач.
This article focuses on the question of mastering speaking as one of the key skills, which
carries out the communicative function of the language. The author of the article considers various
approaches existing in the history of teaching a foreign language and gives a more detailed view on
Communicative language teaching (CLT) which creates real-life situations of doing necessary use of
language of training for the solution of communicative tasks.
Introduction
English has entered many spheres of our life. Comparing the demand for the English language
learning in Kazakhstan with that that existed 20 or more years ago we can state that it has grown
dramatically. Harmer names several factors that triggered the penetration of English into the global
communication. They are economics, information exchange, travel, popular culture and a colonial
history [4]. All the factors can be applied to Kazakhstan, except the latter. In the process of political,
cultural and educational development of the country the need to use English has grown. Hence,
students see the importance of language learning for their future and want to reap the benefits of it in
a form of better opportunities for obtaining higher education and job promotion.
Oral communication in the target language is becoming vitally important in the modern life.
This is the reason why speaking has been included into a number of English language examinations.
‘Test designers responded to the challenge, and traditional grammar tests gave way to tests of overall
23
ability in the four skills, including tests of oral performance’ [19, p37]. Therefore we teachers should
respond to these changes and teach the language which can be successfully used for both written and
oral interaction.
However, the majority of language learners are not satisfied with the level of their oral speech.
Thornbury points out ‘one frustration commonly voiced by learners’ [19, p.208] - it is inability to
speak it although sufficient time has been dedicated to language learning. The problem might lie in
the fact that teachers usually use traditional methods of teaching which undervalue the development
of oral interaction skills. At school, and later at the university I was taught that accuracy is crucial in
mastering a language. The level of accuracy was equaled to the perfect command of the language.
That time I saw my mission in teaching good pronunciation, correct spelling and adequate grammar,
and in developing reading skills. Focus was made mostly on form. I did not entirely neglect speaking
but I should admit that the proportion of time spent on speaking was minute.
Thus, the choice of the theme for my research is predicated on two interrelated factors stated
above. The first factor is the growing demand to prepare learners for international language exams. The
second factor is that though of all the language skills speaking is commonly called the most important
teaching it has been underestimated in teaching practice on the whole and by me in particular which
results in low speaking proficiency of learners.
Literature review
Different approaches to teaching speaking
We learn to speak in the native language in the process of our everyday life without thinking
how we master it whereas while learning another language we have to take into consideration different
ways how to do it successfully. ‘So natural and integral is speaking that we forget how we once
struggled to achieve this ability- until, that is, we have to learn how to do it all over again in a foreign
language’ [20, p 1]. Learning speaking in L2 does not happen naturally and teaching speaking is not
an easy task, given the fact that many teaching approaches paid little if any attention to speaking as
a skill to develop.
According to Murphy approaches can be differentiated clearly according to the part they assign
for oral language at the lesson. If we place methodologies on a virtual scale with respect to the
importance they attach to oral language, the first position on the scale will be occupied by Grammar
Translation Method which is a shining example of an approach that completely ignores speaking.
The position with the most favourable attitude to teaching speaking will be occupied by Task Based
Learning according to which ‘activities are centered upon practical tasks for students to perform that
can be weighted to emphasize oral communication’ [10, p53].
The majority of the methodologies in between these two relied mainly upon drilling much more
than on communicating. For instance, as stated by Harmer, in the Direct method and Audiolingualism,
that emerged after Grammar Translation ‘the sentence was still the main object of interest, and
accuracy was all important’ [4, p.63]. There was little free communication at the lesson and activities
were designed in a way that prevented students from making mistakes, as they were accuracy focused
but not fluency focused. A variation of Audiolingualism - Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP)
was a shift towards bringing speaking into classroom. According to this approach language is first
presented in a context to demonstrate its meaning. Then it is practiced in controlled conditions, after
which comes a freer production stage [17, 2011]. It looks logical and has become a staple in teaching
preferences of teachers. Richard Frost [5] points out that most teachers familiarize themselves with the
notion of PPP immediately at the beginning of any teacher training course. However, with respect to
developing speaking skills this approach has its drawbacks: students practice language mechanically,
in small portions and in a short period of time they are usually unable to produce it again [5], because
there is no real communication in fact.
What is Communicative language teaching?
24
5
An alternative to the approaches mentioned above arrived in the 1970s as a Communicative
Language Teaching or the Communicative Approach that embraced several approaches, including a
Task Based Learning. It ‘could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown
dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction.
They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language’ [6, par.2]. Unlike other
approaches, CLT engages students into real communication by creating ‘real-life situations that
necessitates communication’ [6, par.4].
Different authors name different number of principles underlying the CLT. However, we can
list some fundamental principles that facilitate second language acquisition. Richards (2006) and
Thornbury (2006) are concurrent in defining three main principles: the communication principle, the
task principle and the principle of meaningfulness. The first means that in order to promote learning
teachers should select activities that contain real communication. Secondly, activities should be
aimed at communicating meaningful content. Lastly leaners should be involved in authentic use of
language, rather than in the language for mechanical drill. Richards & Rodgers (2001). Tsinghong Ma
(2009) and S.A. Razmjoo, A.M. Riazi (2006) highlight two more important principles: the principle
of avoiding constant error correcting and the principle of using grammar as a tool but not an aim of
the activity.
These five principles are also included into the list structured by Brandl (2007) with reference
to Doughty and Long. To add, these authors state the following principles: ‘Input needs to be rich’ [2
p.12] and ‘Recognize and respect affective factors of learning’ [2 p.21]. Learners should be exposed
to a ‘plethora of language patterns, chunks, and phrases in numerous contexts and situations’ over a
long period of time and it can be attained through the teacher’s maximum use of the target language
as well as by a broad range of authentic and adapted materials [2, p12-13]. Not the least significant
principle is connected with affective factors of learning which implies the creation of the situation
with low anxiety and high motivation level [2 p.21].
What is a communicative activity?
The principles set above are realized through communicative activities. Nunan also calls them
‘pedagogical tasks’ that ‘involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting
in the target language [11, p.4]. These are activities that engage students in communicating meaning
through negotiation, using communication strategies, avoiding confusion of meaning and which are
aimed at developing oral fluency. Thornbury (2011) defines a communicative activity as an activity that
involves real communication and leads students away from their concern about grammar. According
to him speaking should be automated through constant practice. Communicative activities create such
practice conditions that speed up the process of automating knowledge. He compares a learner with
a novice driver who has to ‘automate the processes of changing gear, indicating, looking in the rear-
view mirror etc. (ibid, p.79)’ so as not to let these actions distract the driver’s attention from the road.
He is sure that ‘practice makes – if not perfect- at least, fluent’ (ibid).
Different authors give similar definitions to fluency. According to Thornbury, fluency is primarily
the ability to produce and maintain speech in real time’ [19, p.82].
According to Richards fluency is a
capability of a learner to meaningfully interact in spite of the fact that she/he does not have sufficient
communicative competence. Both authors agree that fluency is equal to communicative effectiveness
[15].
Richards suggests the following characteristics of activities that are focused on fluency: they
represent real-life language, they focus on meaningful interpersonal exchange, they are done within
context and the language production is not planned. By contrast, activities focused on accuracy are
mainly planned, they lack freedom of language choice, they use language out of context and the
amount of language produced is restricted (ibid).
Ruth Hamilton gives some tips how to make communicative activities more effective. First of
25
all the following should be kept in mind: whether there is a purpose for communication, if the tasks
correspond to the students’ vocabulary and grammar level, if the students will be interested in the
topic and whether affective factors are taken into consideration. In addition, teachers should also
think over their instructions – whether they are clear and to the point, and whether group arrangement
is correct (n.d.).
Teacher’s and learner’s roles in CLT
Communicative Language Teaching has changed the role of a teacher and a learner (Richard,
2006). Now learners have to work more cooperatively than individually, they are supposed to work
comfortably with peers, be ready to an interaction pattern different from Teacher-Student pattern, and
finally they have to be managers for their own learning. Teachers’ role in a communicative classroom
is that of a monitor and a facilitator. Teachers are supposed to speak less but listen more (Richard,
2006).
From the perspective of Diane Larsen-Freeman [7] the role of a teacher also implies being an
‘adviser’ who can answer students’ questions and help them work on their errors later during accuracy-
based exercises. In some cases the teacher may actively take part in communication as well, thus
serving as a сo-communicator, ‘but more often he establishes situations that prompt communication
between and among students’ [7, p 130].
Critical view on CLT
However, while using Communicative Language Learning we have to bear in mind that there
are some drawbacks of the approach voiced by Michael Swan. In his opinion there might be problems
in implementing this approach for teaching beginners because ‘unfortunately, grammar hasn’t become
any easier to learn since communicative revolution’ [18, p78]. An attempt to concentrate only on
meaning leads to the loss of correctness, which in its turn leads to fossilization of errors. He approves
of the strategy used by skillful teachers when they first practice grammar structures in isolation, only
then they ‘do interesting thing with them’, meaning communicative activities (ibid).
There is one more aspect that stirs up controversy. Though advocating the contribution made
by CLT to language teaching, Swan touches upon ‘the “real-life’ fallacy” [18, p. 82]. It means that
classroom conditions cannot fully represent real life communication and there can be a certain extent
of ‘artificiality’ in exercising language items. Therefore teachers do not need to feel guilty when
alongside with a large number of communicative activities there will be some that do not have ‘an
immediate communicative value’ like repetitions, drills, translation (ibid, p. 83).
From the perspective of Swan (1985) any communication is like ‘filling in an information
gap’ [18, p.83]. Some people have information that another person needs. It will be a good idea
if communicative activities are based on information that is relevant to leaners. Activities should
contain information that is nearer to leaners’ life.
Each individual in a class already possesses a vast private store of knowledge, opinions, and
experience; and each individual has an imagination which is capable of creating whole scenarios at
a moment’s notice… If student X can be persuaded to communicate some of these things to student
Y—and this is not very difficult to arrange—then we have a basis for genuinely rich and productive
language practice. [18, p. 84]
But he thinks that ‘communication of this ‘personal’ kind seems to be seriously under- exploited’
in teaching practice [18, p. 84].
However, what different authors agree about is in defining the kinds of communicative
activities. Richards (2005) classifies them into the following categories: information - gap activities,
task - completion activities, jigsaw - activities, opinion - sharing activities, information - gathering
activities, information - transfer activities, reasoning - gap activities and role plays.
Lesson development
I have worked in a school specializing in English. It means students begin studying English at
|