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- WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN AFGHANISTAN
- Farm size distribution in afghanistan
- Future use* Bala nce Surface Water
- Water resources management issues
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№2 2016 Вестник КазНИТУ 32 Lack of municipal sewer systems and lack of urban solid waste collection and disposal system. The absence of both these causes big problems in all areas of the environment and particularly in surface water and groundwater contamination have created huge problems. Resources and causes of pollution of ground- water can be mentioned as follows: Since the collection and treatment of urban waste water is not available, so people use non-standard aabsorption wells and septic for their household sewage disposal. Sewage through these shafts filtrate and very easy enter the underground aquifer layers. Disposal of household wastewater in the Kabul River in a non-standard method and without any treatment. Non-standard disposal of municipal solid waste: These substances accumulate in different places of the city, and in the monsoon washed by rain and eventually contaminate the groundwater and surface water (Figure 2). These issues have widely reflected again and again in the national and international media.
Figure 2. Pollution of Kabul groundwater (wastewater and solid waste inside the Kabul River)
Proposed ways for solution: In recent years groundwater of Kabul from the view of quantity (amount), quality and management were in the worst case. If the necessary measures and decisions are not taken in time to fix the problems, challenges can be turned into a disaster. Solve the serious problem are demanding serious work of all stake- holders, including residents of the city, state, civil society, NGOs, entrepreneurs, donors and others. We are suggesting the following methods to improve the current situation. Use of natural and artificial methods for recharge ground water. Natural feeding of groundwater is a slow process and it takes too much time to be completed again the amount of resources that extracted. Artificial nutrition with using appropriate ways and structures increases the feeding rate from surface waters (Figure 3). With using appropriate methods can use a maximum amount of surface water which has good quality for recharging ground water. Methods of ground water recharge: Artificial feeding is the injection of surface waters using the pool or local filtered or wells. For example, a dam can operate as a pool filter. It is considered that the pool or res- ervoir should be constructed on the permeable layers.
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ҚазҰТЗУ хабаршысы №2 2016 33
Figure 3. Artificial recharge of groundwater
There are usually three basic methods of groundwater recharge: direct, indirect and shared. Direct feeding of surface water: Raising the current water bed, Collecting waters in the catchment area like check dams and constructing of structures for reducing velocity of monsoon rainwater and other types of delayed constructions. Distribution of surface water in underground through injection wells, gravity wells or gravity fed shaft. Raising the water level in Kabul River and constructing structures to delay the water. Indirect feeding of groundwater: Modification of aquifer with using explosions of drilling wells and leaks of water. Creation of underground dams and cement injection for closing and blocking underground seams to prevent the escape of ground water. Reduce the use of groundwater resources and increase use of surface water resources. Creation of urban sewage disposal and treatment systems Making a standard method for municipal solid waste collecting, management and disposal system. Control and management of water resources, groundwater and prevent illegal use of them.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА [1] Шабир.С.C. Кабул сети гронд ватер деплешан анд пропозед методс оф ресерч // модерн енвайронмен- тал манажмент анд технологис-2011 КПУ [2] Нури.А.Р. Экологигикал стат оф де Кабул ривер // Земля - наш общий дом - 2014- С 126 [3] http://8am.af/the-introduction-of-a-new-system-for-wastewater-treatment-in-kabul/ ( де интрудокшан оф нев системс фор вастватер третмент ин Кабул, 20,02,1394) [4] http://af.farsnews.com/social/news/13931209000949 (85% оф ватер ис полутед ин Кабул, Фарс невс Агенси, 09,12,1393) [5] http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84 ( информашан абавт Кабул)
[1] Shabir. S.S. Kabul city ground water depletion and proposed methods of recharge//Modern Environmental Management and Technologies-2011 KPU [2] Noori.A.R. Ecological state of the Kabul river// Earth - our common home - 2014- P 126 [3] http://8am.af/the-introduction-of-a-new-system-for-wastewater-treatment-in-kabul/ (The introduction of new systems for wastewater treatment in Kabul, 20,02,1394) [4] http://af.farsnews.com/social/news/13931209000949 (85% of water is polluted in Kabul, Fars News Agency, 09,12,1393) [5] http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84 ( Information about Kabul)
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№2 2016 Вестник КазНИТУ 34
Noori A. R., Myrzahmetov M. Quality and quantity of drinking water in Kabul Summary: In the article the sources of drinking water from the view of quantity and quality in Kabul city is studied. The only source of water in the city is groundwater to supply drinking water for the citizens of Kabul. As the population in the city is increased day by day, therefore, water demand is relatively increased. According to eye-view of the author and media reports, there are two fundamental problems with the sources of water. These two problems are related to quality and quantity of water. This article briefly studied causes of each factors and finally offers some solu- tion methods for each of them. Key words: drinking water, groundwater, groundwater recharge, quality of drinking water.
Нури А. Р., Мурзахметов Качество и количество питьевой воды в Кабуле Резюме: В статье изучены источники питьевой воды с точки зрения количества и качества в городе Ка- буле. Единственным источником воды в городе являются подземные воды. Поскольку население в городе уве- личивается с каждым днем, то спрос на воду относительно увеличивается. Есть две фундаментальные пробле- мы с источниками воды. Они связаны с качеством и количеством. В этой статье кратко указаны причины каж- дого факторов и, наконец, предлагается несколько методов решения для каждого из них.
УДК 626.81 Mohammad Shafiq Seddiqi, M. Myrzakhmetov (Kazakh National research and Technical University, Email:shafiqseddiqie@gmail.com)
provements in water resources management need to be approached in a strategic manner-it needs planning, guidance and investment. A number of national and international organizations are presently engaged in the assessment of current situation and strategy development for the rehabilitation of irrigation systems. Lack of data, the unreliability of the ex- isting data and the collapse of the institutional set up makes it difficult to understand and assess the current situation. Therefore a conscious effort is needed to collect all existing information and data from institutions, private organiza- tions and from people’s memories to complete the picture. This article is also an effort in this direction. This article pre- sents the analysis of current status of water resources management in Afghanistan and identify steps for maximizing the use of available water resources to enhance crop productivity and environmental sustainability.
Afghanistan is located between 29o 35’ – 38o 40’ latitude and 60o 31’ – 74o 55’ of longitude. It is bounded by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the North, China to the Northeast, Pakistan to the East and South and Iran to the West. Afghanistan is characterized by its rugged mountains with snow- covered peaks of high altitude, up to 7500 meters above sea level (m asl), fertile valleys and desert plains. Lowlands include river valleys and desert regions are located in the northern, western, south-western and south eastern parts while high lands are generally located in the central part of the country. From topographical point of view the country can be divided into three groups. Low lands with 300-500 m asl; medium land with 500-2000 m asl and high land between 2000-7500 m asl. About half of the country has an altitude of more than 2000 m asl. The total land area of Afghanistan is about 65 million ha of which approximately 80 percent is either mountainous or desert. The forest cover is only 1.3 million ha or about 2 percent of the total land area. In recent years forest cover has reduced due to continuous demands for fuel wood and illegal logging. The demand for fuel wood by communities is considered less damaging than illegal logging. It is estimated that forest cut rates are exceeding annual growth rates leaving a deficit of about 30,000 ha of forest per year. Administratively, Afghanistan is divided into 30 provinces (two provinces have very recently been added). The current population of Afghanistan is estimated at about 20 million with a rural population of around 16.5 million. They live in approximately 20,000 villages scattered
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ҚазҰТЗУ хабаршысы №2 2016 35 across Afghanistan. The scatter of villages is mainly based on the existence of water. Majority of the rural population is small subsistence farmers who live of small plots of land. Although there are marked geographical differences in wealth generating capacities across the country, there is a similar cross-section to village society irrespective of location or agro ecological zone. This cross-section covers small landholders, landowners, sharecroppers, female-headed households and land- less. The average holding was 3 ha in 1967. The vast majority of holding fall in the range of 0.5 to 6 ha. Holding under 20 ha accounted for 60% of land ownership in 1967 and those over 100 ha for 8%. Distribu- tion of farm size in irrigated and rained areas is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Farm size distribution in afghanistan Farm size (ha) Irrigated farms (%) Rainfed farms (%) <3 83
8 3-6 14
8 >6 3 84 Median 1.4 ha
6-7 ha
Climate Afghanistan is characterized by a continental climate, although the presence of mountains causes m a n y l o c a l va r i a t i ons . The typical climate varies from arid in the South and Southwest to semi- arid in most other parts of the country. The high mountain ranges of Hindu Kush and Pamir are moderate humid and covered by permanent snow and glaciers at altitudes above 5,000 m. With a few exceptions of some locations receiving sufficient rainfall in spring (Northern slopes of Hindu Kush above 1,000m alti- tude), the climate is not favorable for rain fed agriculture. During winter, temperatures are low and pre- cipitation occurs in form of snow whereas during summer, temperatures are high and rainfall is virtu- ally zero. Without irrigation supplies, these arid to semi-arid areas cannot support any irrigation. In Afghanistan, the water availability for irrigation purposes is mainly a function of effective rainfall and surface as well as groundwater resources - which depend in turn on the amount and distribution (time and space) of precipitation. Therefore, considering variations in precipitation as the most decisive parame- ter, Afghanistan can be divided into 6 climatic zones.
Although Afghanistan is located in half deserted atmosphere, it is still rich in water resources mainly due to the series of high mountains such as Wakhan, Hindokush and Baba covered by snow. Over 80 per cent of the country’s water resources have their origin in the Hindu Kush mountain ranges at altitudes above 2,000 m which function as a natural storage of water in form of snow during winter and thus support perennial flow in all major rivers by snow melt during summer. Afghanistan is part of 3 large river basins: The Amu Darya basin in the North separated by the Hin- du Kush mountain range from the Desert basin in the South, and the Indus basin in the East. Because of practical reasons related to the quantification of available surface water volumes, the hydrological classifi- cation is based on principal watershed units. Based on the hydrological and morphological systems, the country can be divided into four main river basins.
Recent estimates indicate that the country has 75 billion cubic meters (BCM) of potential water re- sources of which 55 BCM is surface water and 20 BCM is groundwater. The annual volume of water used for irrigation is estimated to be 20 BCM, which is 99 per cent of all water used. Total groundwater ex- traction amounts to some 3 BCM. Approximately 15 per cent of the total water volume used annually origi- nates from alluvial groundwater aquifers (9 per cent) and springs (7 per cent), and almost 85 per cent from rivers and streams. Ground water used from deep wells counts for less than 0.5 per cent. The annual per capi- ta water availability is approximately 2500 cubic meter, which compares favorably with other countries of the region, for example, with Iran (1400 cubic meter per capita per year) and Pakistan (1200 cubic meter per capita per year). A qualitative assessment shows that Afghanistan's water resources are still largely underused which is supported by the data presented in Table 2:
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№2 2016 Вестник КазНИТУ 36 TABLE 2. Estimated surface and ground water balance (bcm per year)
57
17 40
30 27
Groundwater 18
3 15
5 13
Total 75
20 55
35 40
* All existing irrigation schemes rehabilitated and managed efficiently.
It is not clear, however, how much of this ‘potential’ resource can be accessed without damage to people and ecosystem. For example, how much of the groundwater can be extracted without leading to an excessive decline in groundwater levels and reaching to a stage of ‘water mining’. Surface water quality is excellent in the upper basins of all rivers throughout the year and good in the lower basins in spite of large irrigated areas. As far as it is known, the presence of saline soils in irrigated areas is never caused by poor water quality but rather by over- irrigation (water logging) or lack of irriga- tion water (fallow fields and high ground water table).
Afghanistan possesses huge reserves of groundwater. According to FAO estimates of 1996, the annual potential of the groundwater in the country is about 20 BCM. At present, only 3 BCM is being used and it is projected that in the next 10 years it can increase to 8 BCM due to increase in irrigation and domestic wa- ter supplies requirements. More than 15% of Afghanistan’s irrigated land gets water from traditional underground systems such as karezes (Qanats), springs and shallow wells (locally called as Arhads). Karezes are underground sys- tems, which tap groundwater by gravity from the aquifer to provide water for irrigating crops and domestic purposes. According to an estimate, all traditional groundwater irrigation systems have reduced or dried up completely. About 60-70% of the karezes are not in use and 85% shallow wells are dried out. The population dependent on these systems has suffered badly due to failure or reduction in discharges of these systems. The main reason for the low discharges is low precipitation and consequently low recharge to the groundwater. In addition, boring of deep wells in the vicinity of karezes and shallow wells had adversely affected the pro- duction of these traditional irrigation systems. This has threatened the sustainability of these systems in the future too. In most of the urban areas, shallow wells are used to get water for drinking and other household activities. As the water levels continue to fall, around 0.5 to 3 meter each month depending on the place, the poorer families are unable to dig their wells deeper and thus are forced to get water from communal wells. Many of these wells are already dried up and people (often women and children) are forced to walk miles to meet their daily water demands.
Afghanistan is predominantly an agrarian society with 80 percent of the population living in rural ar- eas, and directly dependent on natural resources for livelihoods (small scale farming, pastures and forest products). Since rainfall is scanty and highly variable over most of the country where topography and soils are suitable for agriculture, there are few areas where rain fed crops can provide a reliable basis for livelihoods. The surveys of 1978 have indicated that 80 percent of wheat and 85 percent of all crops were produced on irrigated lands. This is also reported to be true for the present day situation. Hence the evolution and growth of agriculture and food security in Afghanistan is very much dependent on the development of irriga- tion.
Water resources management in Afghanistan is primarily irrigation water management because at pre- sent the annual water used for irrigation is about 99% of the all water used. Nearly 90 percent of all irrigation systems in Afghanistan, covering about 2.3 million ha, are traditional schemes developed and built by farmers and operated and maintained by them according to traditional communal customs and practices. Total devel- oped irrigated area in 1978 was estimated to be 2.63 million ha of which only 1.44 million ha had sufficient water supply to support double cropping in a year (FAO, 1997).
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ҚазҰТЗУ хабаршысы №2 2016 37 The effects of war and neglect on these systems have not been systematically assessed. However, ac- cording to FAO estimates of 1997, about 1.7 million ha required rehabilitation, and another 0.68 million ha required improved on-farm water management conditions. Canal management has completely collapsed. Canals are completely silted, breached, and not delivering as in the past. About 46% of the irrigation struc- tures are damaged and 88% of the irrigation structures are traditional which are responsible for the 40% of the total water loss. For example, irrigation provided under the Parwan project declined from 25,000 ha to 10,000 ha due to sedimentation in canals and poor maintenance. Similarly, irrigated land declined sharply since 1978, from 2.8 million ha to about 1.2 million ha. This is primarily due to drought and lack of maintenance of surface water facilities-small dams and canal systems. The indirect impact of war on modern irrigation systems is much more serious than the traditional schemes. The intake structures of modern irrigation schemes are out of function due to the missing of me- chanical parts looted during the war and lack of professional staff to repair and operate these systems. How- ever, the direct negative impact of war on irrigation.
The problems of water resources management in Afghanistan are complex and a straightforward solu- tion seems impossible. In order to increase agricultural production and sustainability of irrigated agriculture, the overall strategy should be to increase water capital and make better use of water. Government must take lead in putting in place the coordination mechanism and providing effective oversight. For quick recovery of water sector, increase in crop production and improvement in water use efficiency and environmental sustainability. Increasing demand for water has put enormous pressure on the groundwater resources. Consumption of groundwater is presently 3 BCM and it is projected that in next 10 years it will reach to 10 BCM due to increase in domestic and irrigation supply demands. Due to this excessive use coupled with the successive drought, groundwater tables in different parts of Afghanistan have declined to the extent that about 60-70 percent of traditional groundwater irrigation systems (i.e. Karezes) have dried up. This overexploitation of the resource has caused devastating impacts on drinking water supplies for urban and rural population. For the preservation of this future resource, Government needs to develop appropriate poli- cies to effectively manage and monitor groundwater development and use. Steps should be taken for the re- vision and enforcement of 1981 water laws. Communities should be directly involved in the campaign of artificially recharging the aquifers and in the conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater resources.
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