CONCEPTUAL AND TRANSLATIONAL FRAMEWORKS OF
METAPHORS
Annotation. The present study attempts to overcome practical limitations of the
theory of conceptual mapping and the idea of comparing only conceptual mappings across
languages in terms of their applicability to translation. Furthermore, the author explores a
contradiction between the view that there are no rules by which we know when a translation
of a metaphor is appropriate or not opposed to the opinion that there are consistently
occurring possible and preferred patterns of translating metaphors.
Keywords: theory of conceptual design, comparison, metaphor, translation.
The aim of the article consists in disclosing problematic limitations of the theory of
conceptual mapping [1] and the idea of comparing conceptual mappings between languages
[2], as well as of the view that there are no rules by which we know when a translation of a
metaphor is appropriate or not [3] opposed to the opinion that there are consistently
occurring possible and preferred patterns of translating metaphors [4; 5]. Research of
headline metaphors used by U.S. online media (ABC News, Associated Press, CBS, CNN,
Fox News, Newsweek, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Washington
Times, and USA Today) on political topics substantiates an essential conclusion that
comparing metaphors across languages should incorporate three perspectives-conceptual
semantics, linguistic expression, and translational equivalence. In order to examine
similarities and differences in linguistic expression of concepts, the present study suggests a
lexical-grammatical and a structural classification. The content of this article develops an
observation that a comparative analysis of metaphors and their translational equivalents
across languages should comprise the tasks of exploring: the extent to which conceptual
metaphors and linguistic metaphors used in one language are different from or similar to
their counterparts in the other language, the way equivalence in translation affects
conceptual metaphors and linguistic metaphors, the extent to which translators agree on
equivalence, and the aspects of metaphors that influence language users’ decision about
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their appropriateness and equivalence across languages.
The choice of language for specific effects and purposes depends on the preferred
patterns of a particular stylistic discourse-journalism in this study. Media rhetoric employs
metaphor as a stylistic device of naming one concept in terms of another because of their
associative similarity in meaning. For example, in the headline Candidates Go on the
Attack after Debate political campaigning is figuratively named attack because of an
implied resemblance between the two notions of intense tactics. Since metaphors even of
the same style and content may differ across languages, a theory of conceptual reference
would allow comparing metaphoric preferences between languages according to systematic
semantic patterns, rather than random expressions. For instance, conceptual similarities
between an election and a theater must have been envisaged if a presidential campaign
could be described so in the following headlines (the metaphors are underlined): Foreign
Policy Takes Rare Role at Center Stage, Curtain Rises on Next Presidential Drama, Behind
the Scenes, or Chiller Theater. Considering conceptual assertions alone, however, does not
guarantee appropriate translational equivalence of metaphors unless we look at their
preferable linguistic expression in the source and target languages, in addition to viewing
the concepts.
In a cognitive sense, the conceptual perspective is recognized as any coherent
organization of experience [6] that can be realized through a number of metaphorical
expressions. A strategic theory of semantic combinability of separate metaphoric
expressions into a unified concept was founded by Lakoff and Johnson [1], who suggested
that, for instance, argument is war if it is expressed through such words as indefensible,
attack, or target. In terms of this example, the Lakoff and Johnson theory of conceptual
mapping is based on two interrelated principles. First, conceptual mapping is achieved
when the source domain-war-is mapped onto the target domain-argument so that argument
could be described as war. Second, conceptual mapping is realized through lexical-semantic
vehicles-the words indefensible, attack, and target-that provide the intended description of
argument as war. These words are considered to be linguistic metaphors [2] that
characterize the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR.
The Lakoff and Johnson theory of conceptual mapping is believed to have initiated a
constructive perspective on metaphoric systems [7]. First, metaphors started being
recognized in everyday abstract concepts-such as time, state, change, causation, and
purpose-rather than only in poetic/figurative expressions. Second, the theory of conceptual
mapping allowed for the arrangement of a large corpus of data into conceptual groups
under capitalized “metaphorical slogans” such as ARGUMENT IS WAR or LOVE IS
JOURNEY or TIME IS A MOVING THING. The theory has become a popular
categorization in researching metaphors. The main applications have consisted in three
perspectives: (1) exploring literal implications of conceptual metaphors [8; 9],
(2) combining separate metaphoric mappings into a conceptual system [2; 10], and
(3) comparing discourse-based conceptual systems across languages [2].
However, the conceptual mapping view was criticized [1] for interpretations that
would appear restricted to one conceptual perspective. Therefore, it was disputed that
argument is not necessarily war-it can be a game of chess [11]. The present study of
metaphors has disclosed another problem in the Lakoff and Johnson theory: simultaneously
used metaphors can be believed to incorporate different concepts in a single statement. For
example, in the headline Candidates in Fight to the Finish, the noun fight states that
CAMPAIGN IS COMBAT or WAR, whereas the noun finish implies that CAMPAIGN IS,
for instance, RACING. Although the metaphor of racing dominates in this headline, both
concepts are highly typical of election campaigns. Consequently, the theory of mapping
does not always explain what conceptual mapping was intended or/and emphasized in a
particular context.
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We further argue that although conceptual mapping provides a framework for
exploring semantics, it does not explain what linguistic patterns are preferred in expressing
conceptual metaphors. For example, the headline Hitting the Road to Speak would appear
in Ukrainian with the same conceptual meaning-journey. The phrase hitting the road,
however, would be expressed by a single word-мандри/journey: Мандри для
промов/Journeys for Speeches. Accordingly, researching whether there is a significant
difference in the frequency of particular lexical-grammatical and structural schemas in the
two languages seems to be important in two interrelated respects: (1) it can specify
rhetorical patterns and preferences in the lexicalized descriptions of the American-English
and Ukrainian political campaigns and (2) it may provide explanations for preferred
equivalence in English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English translation.
In the present study, the two observed perspectives-lexical-grammatical and
structural-are addressed through the development of two systems for classifying the
linguistic expression of metaphors. The first system distinguishes between five lexical-
grammatical types of metaphor: (1) nominative (expressed by nouns and noun-phrases, e.g.,
Candidates Spur Attacks Over Security, Chiller Theater), (2) verbal (represented by verbs
and verb forms, e.g., Candidates Spur Attacks Over Security, Chasing a Coveted
Democratic Prize across the Plains), (3) attributive (revealed in adjectival modifiers, e.g.,
Voter Turnout Is Reported as Heavy in Most Areas), (4) adverbial (realized by adverbial
modifiers, e.g., Deeply Divided Country Is United in Anxiety), and (5) idiomatic (unfolded
through set-expressions, e.g., Cooking His Own Goose, Rise of the Machines). The second
classification system subdivides metaphors into three structural types: (1) simple metaphors
(expressed in a word, e.g., Candidates Hopscotch through Battleground States; the verb
hopscotch corresponds to the concept of RACING/MOVEMENT), (2) phrasal metaphors
(represented by a phrase, an idiom, e.g., Election Alarms Fall on Deaf Ears; fall on deaf
ears-a concept of IMPAIRED HEALTH), and (3) sustained metaphors (disclosed through a
gradually unfolding metaphor, e.g., Nationwide forecast for Nov. 2: Mostly cloudy; a
forecast of cloudy weather-a concept of LOW VISIBILITY: Campaign predictions of
uncertainty are a forecast of cloudy weather).
Our research observation has resulted in a conclusion that developing conceptual
mappings alone explains neither what preferable structures express concepts in language,
nor what reasons are involved in choosing metaphors. Are there cultural references,
subjective associations, traditional interpretations, or pragmatic strategies involved in the
process of metaphor formation, interpretation, and, eventually, mapping? What parameters
make our thinking comparable? How does it influence the process, product, and functions
of inter-lingual and intercultural translation? Would a translator have to observe a particular
metaphor mapping in the source text so that a similar mapping could be reconstructed in the
target language? Are there specific types of metaphor that would influence the translator’s
decision of whether to preserve or modify the source-text images?
The reasons for finding answers to these questions can probably be explained by the
following example. The two headlines about the U.S. elections-Candidates Aim for
Battleground Ohio and Rise of the Machines-both represent a conceptual metaphor
ELECTION CAMPAIGN IS COMBAT. The first metaphoric word, battleground (a
closely contested state), was found to occur 26 times in 500 American headlines while the
second expression, rise of the machines, was used only once, in the metaphoric meaning of
political machines. The frequency of the word battleground implies that it is preferred as a
traditional and somewhat direct identification of the concept COMBAT (cf. battle-combat).
In contrast, neither separate part of the expression rise of the machines-rise or machines-
can be identified as COMBAT. The expression rise of the machines is recognized as a
COMBAT metaphor because of its cultural reference, allusion, to the American combative
movie Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines.
When the expression is translated into
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Ukrainian, its meaning is identified because of the cultural reference to the American
movie. The translator of the headline would not have to explain or modify the image in
translating this headline only because the movie has already disclosed the meaning for the
Ukrainian audience. However, failing to observe such specific features of expressions
within conceptual mapping can result in an assumption that any expressions of any
discourse of any language are identical as long as they can be mapped onto the same
concept.
Further, the two above-mentioned headlines entail another chain of observations. In
English, the word battleground can be preferred over the phrase rise of the machines
because it is concise and able to function both as a noun and an adjective, a descriptive
attribute for the noun that follows (cf. Battleground: Ohio and Close Race in Battleground
States). In Ukrainian, this compound noun (a noun consisting of two free morphemes-battle
+ ground) has only a phrasal equivalent-поле битви/field of battle-and cannot be used as a
descriptive attribute. Thus, all 26 among 500 instances of the single word battleground
could potentially appear in Ukrainian as a noun phrase поле битви and never in an
attributive function. However, this would translate/paraphrase the headline Candidates Aim
for Battleground Ohio into Candidates Aim for Battleground IN Ohio, which means
making future plans “to arrange a battleground” rather than characterizing Ohio at some
particular moment or/and throughout the whole campaign. By contrast, the expression rise
of the machines (a combination of two nouns linked with a preposition of) can be easily
translated into Ukrainian word by word-Rise of the Machines-Повстання машин-and
function in the same way as its English phrasal equivalent. Consequently, four hypotheses
can be developed: (1) in English, metaphors in an attributive function are more frequent
than in Ukrainian, (2) in Ukrainian, phrasal metaphors are more frequent than in English,
(3) conceptual metaphors are represented in the two languages by structurally different
equivalents, and (4) functional and structural differences between metaphoric
words/phrases across the languages may induce the translator/writer to modify the
expressed image and carefully consider what meaning was implied in the source-text
metaphor: e.g., Would it be correct to interpret Battleground Ohio as Strategic Ohio? A
fifth implication could be assumed from the equivalence Rise of the Machines-Повстання
машин: functional and structural similarities allow easy word by word translation.
However, for Ukrainian, it would translate the headline Cooking His Own Goose into a
contextually literal nonsense-Приготування його власного гуся-unless the translator
carefully finds an equivalent idiom (a lexical-semantic, rather than lexical-grammatical
analogy) in the target language.
The conclusion involves the question of whether metaphor is a cognitive
phenomenon related to our understanding of things, or whether it is a linguistic
phenomenon observed in how we name them [2]. The analyzed examples indicate that
metaphor is both—conceptual understanding/re-cognition and linguistic expression, and
exploring both can be equally important. The present research is an attempt to solve the
problem of mistaking concepts for reliable indicators of equivalence in rhetoric across
languages. Therefore, we argue that exploring linguistic preferences and translational
equivalence should be employed to specify the parameters of appropriateness and
equivalence of figurative expressions across languages.
Studying translational equivalence across languages presupposes exploring the
issues of how target texts are received in the target culture(s), whether the target text reader
interprets the translated text in a different way, and what reasons for any different
interpretations are possible. Translation consists in a purposeful activity of producing a
target text that is appropriate for target addressees under target circumstances [12].
However, what factors influence the translator’s decision of what is appropriate? Is it
pragmatics, which comprises the use of language and context for determining what and
how to say? Or conventional forms of lexical
equivalence, which, in unfortunate
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cases of false translation of metaphor, shift the tone of the text or appear odd in the
translated context? Or is it the translator’s subjective choice of equivalent metaphor that
may promote stereotypes destructive for a particular context? The present study attempts to
answer these questions by considering systematic metaphoric equivalence suggested by
professional translators for metaphoric headlines.
The choice of a relevant framework can result from observing two perspectives:
(1) there are no rules by which we know when a translation of metaphor is appropriate or
not [3] and (2) there are consistently occurring possible and preferred patterns of translating
metaphor [4; 5].
The first perspective describes the process of translation. Its methodological
suggestions for translating do not exceed the level of conceptual mapping – reinterpreting
the meaning. For instance, Osimo [13] observes that if a writer chooses a metaphor, the
translator, first, has to reconstruct the process that led the author of the original text to a
given association; second, the subsequent interpretation should reflect the psychological
objective of the source text. However, it seems that the process and the product of
translation go far beyond psychology. For example, we accept the two propositions:
(1) there are no rules for deciding whether a translation is appropriate or not and
(2) translating metaphor is appropriate as soon as we recognize and interpret the
psychological objective and the given association. Then the headline Candidates Aim for
Battleground Ohio could be presented as, for instance, Candidates Aim for Field of Battle
Ohio or Candidates Aim for Battlefield Ohio. Should we accept these headlines? Or should
we try to research the implications of the fact that the forms field of battle or battlefield did
not occur even once in the corpus of 500 metaphoric headlines of the same context? The
absence of these forms (in contrast to the frequent battleground) in the U.S. media of
political discourse implies that the suggested interpretations would not seem appropriate in
at least three interrelated respects/‘rules’. First, the pragmatic effect of writing in the target
language for the target discourse and audience is not achieved. Second, the conventional
forms of lexical equivalence (battleground-поле битви-field of battle or battlefield) appear
odd/false in the given combinability in the headlines. Third, while the frequent word
battleground has already become as conventional as dividing the states into red and blue,
the expression field of battle appears to be subjective. Consequently, the perspective of “no
rules of what equivalence is appropriate” does not seem to work beyond the level of
concepts.
Therefore, in researching equivalence in translation, the present study favors the
second perspective: analyzing the products of translation-the possible and preferred
equivalents. The framework can involve two classifications-by Broeck [4] and Schäffner
[5].
The Broeck classification is based on his observing how metaphors are usually
translated across English, German, and French texts. Three basic variants of translating
metaphor are identified. First, translation ‘sensu stricto’ (word by word): e.g., Rise of the
Machines-Повстання машин. Second, substitution (using another metaphor): e.g.,
Collegians Rock the Vote-Студенти роздувають голосування/Students Storm the Vote:
rock-storm. Third, paraphrasing non-metaphorically: e.g., Election Alarms Fall on Deaf
Ears-Перестороги виборів проігноровано/Election Alarms Are Ignored. [2: 77;
examples—O.Y.].
The study by Schäffner [5] illustrates and discusses how metaphors are translated
from German into English in media texts of political discourse. The researcher presents
German sentences/paragraphs with their English translation, identifies conceptual
metaphors for the given texts, and draws conclusions about the observed types of
translating conceptual metaphors. Researching translational equivalence of metaphors of a
particular discourse can verify the reliability of this classification [5: p. 1267]: (1) at the
macro-level,
a
conceptual
metaphor
is
identical in ST (source-text) and TT
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(translated-text), (2) structural components of the base conceptual schema in the ST are
replaced in the TT by expressions that explain implications, (3) a metaphor is more
elaborate in the TT, (4) ST and TT employ different metaphoric expressions which can be
combined under a more abstract conceptual metaphor, and (5) the expression in the TT
reflects a different aspect of the conceptual metaphor.
Consequently, the classifications by Broeck [4] and Schäffner [5] can serve as
a framework for specifying linguistic and conceptual equivalence, respectively. Further
research, however, may differ from these two studies in several respects: (1) translating
headlines instead of paragraphs, (2) comparing languages other than English and German,
(3) considering a particular discourse instead of paragraphs or sentences about politics,
(4) involving several translators instead of simply comparing how the data could be/were
translated, (5) specifying what equivalence is recognized as acceptable and preferable by
several translators-raters, instead of concluding about equivalence as observed by the
researcher alone, (6) quantifying the findings, instead of only naming the observed variants
of translation, (7) comparing findings in translation to findings in conceptual and linguistic
classifications, instead of only observing correspondence between metaphoric equivalents,
and (8) checking research findings against the opinion of a number of professional
translators.
Thus, descriptive approaches to analyzing metaphors present a rather vague idea of
what aspects of figurative expressions are typical of a particular language, style, or rhetoric.
The tendency to describe, rather than classify, metaphors spreads from the indeterminacy of
whether the meaning or linguistic expression of metaphors should be specified. Further, the
theory of conceptual mappings suggested by Lakoff and Johnson [1] has facilitated
conceptually more specific qualitative and quantitative comparative studies of metaphors in
different languages and corpora [10]. The theory suggests that linguistic expressions help
understand what concepts are implied. The conceptual mapping view can be useful for
comparing concepts of rhetoric across languages.
The present study, however, has pointed out limitations of comparing concepts only.
Comparing linguistic and translated expressions of metaphor across languages is considered
important for classifying the rhetoric of different languages. Therefore, the undertaken
discourse analysis has developed two linguistic classifications of metaphor-lexical-
grammatical and structural.
Studies in translation were found to contain two perspectives-absence of rules for
equivalents versus systematic patterns of equivalence. The first perspective was shown to
be misleading because its assumptions mistake translation for basically conceptual
interpretation. In the present research, translation is recognized as providing both
conceptual and linguistic equivalence. Exploring both can be specified according to the
classifications by Broeck [4] and Schäffner [5] in the framework of systematic patterns of
equivalence.
Since discourse analysis has resulted in a conclusion that conceptual mapping alone
does not clarify possible differences in linguistic expression and equivalence across
languages, comparing lexical-grammatical, structural and translational patterns consistently
is expected to reveal the content of possible conceptual differences. Exploring equivalence
in translation should be involved to clarify what conceptual schemas are typical and
supportive of media rhetoric across languages and cultures.
Being based on the developed suggestions to researching metaphors consecutively
from three angles-conceptual, linguistic, and translational, further research can be
productive within at least three perspectives of metaphor-similarities and differences in the
use and translation of (headline) metaphors of a particular event portrayed across
languages, the universal and specific national character of new metaphoric expressions in
the mass media or any other discourse, and the correlation between verbal expression and
visual
representation
of
metaphors
in
presenting and translating a particular
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type of information.
References:
1.
Lakoff J. Johnson M. Metaphors We Live By. – Chicago; London: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1980. – 242 p.
2.
Charteris-Black J., Ennis T. A comparative study of metaphor in Spanish and
English financial reporting // English for Specific Purposes. – 2001. – Vol. 20. – P. 249-
266.
3.
Miller D. F. The Reason of Metaphor: A Study in Politics. – New Delhi; Newbury
Park; London: Sage Publications, 1992. – 268 p.
4.
Broeck R. van den. The limits of translability exemplified by metaphor translation
// Poetics Today. – 1981. – Vol. 2 (4). – Р. 73-87.
5.
Schäffner Ch. Metaphor and translation: some implications of a cognitive
approach // Journal of Pragmatics. – 2004. – Vol. 36. – P. 1253-1269.
6.
Emanatian M. Metaphor and the expression of emotion: the value of cross-cultural
perspectives // Metaphor and Symbolic Activity. – 1995. – Vol. 10 (3). – P. 163-182.
7.
Stern J. J. Metaphor in Context / Josef J. Stern. – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press;
London: A Brandford Book, 2000. – 240 р.
8.
Giora R. Literal vs. figurative language: different or equal? // Journal of
Pragmatics. – 2002. – Vol. 34. – P. 487-506.
9.
Shen Y. Metaphors and categories // Poetics Today. – 1992. – Vol. 13 (4). –
Р. 771-794.
10.
Gibbs R. W. Jr. When is Metaphor? The idea of understanding in theories of
metaphor // Poetics Today. – 1992. – Vol. 13 (4). – P. 575-606.
11.
Ritchie D. “Argument is war” – or is it a game of chess? Multiple meanings in
the analysis of implicit metaphors // Metaphor and Symbol. – 2003. – Vol. 18 (2). –
P. 125-146.
12.
Nord C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Functionalist Approaches
Explained. – Routledge: St. Jerome, Manchester. – 1997. – 154 p.
13.
Osimo B. On psychological aspects of translation // Sign Systems Studies. –
2002. – Vol. 30 (2). – P. 607-627.
***
Ясинецкая Е.А.
Метафоралардың концептуалдық және аудармалық құрылымы
Мақалада концептуалды модельдеу теориясының шектеулері және түрлі
тілдегі метафораларды концептуалды салыстыру әдісі туралы талдау жасалады.
Автор саяси дискурс метафораларын мысалға ала отырып, түрлі пікірлердің
қарама-қайшылығын қарастырады.
Кілт сөздер: концептуалды модельдеу теориясы, салыстыру, метафора,
аударма.
***
Ясинецкая Е.А.
Концептуальные и переводческие возможности интерпретации метафор
В статье производится анализ ограничений теории концептуального
моделирования и приёма концептуальных сопоставлений метафор в разных языках с
точки
зрения
применимости
таких
подходов к практике перевода. На
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примере метафор политического дискурса автор рассматривает противоречия
между мнением, что не существует определённых правил относительно степени
адекватности перевода метафор, и закономерностями, которые раскрывают
возможные и предпочтительные модели перевода метафор.
Ключевые слова: теория концептуального моделирования, сопоставление,
метафора, перевод.
***
ӘОЖ 811.512.122' 367
Алтаева А.К. – филология ғылымдарының докторы,
доцент, «Тұран» университеті
E-mail: ak.alma@mail.ru
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