Theories of Matter
242
Molccular Theory
Matrix mechanics theory of matter (MMTM) is a better molccular
v theory than the ball-and-stick molccular theory. In the ab initio MMTM
molecular theory the only parameters required by the procedure arc
Planck’s constant, the charge and mass of the clcctron, and the number
and kind of nuclci. This theory can for many molcculcs predict with
high accuracy their equilibrium geometries and their forcc constants.
Unfortunately it predicts other properties, c. g., dissociation energy,
clcctronic spcctra, etc., with a lower accuracy. The accuracy can be
■
increased by the use of larger vector spaces, a technique that can be very
difficult, very expensive, and/or impossible with the currently available
scalar computers. The problem bccomcs easier with supercomputers that
employ vector and/or parallel processors and larger memories, but there
will always be some upper limit to the size of a molcculc on which
accuratc ab initio calculations can be made. A theory which is less
strongly computcr-dcpcndcnt is the semiempirical molecular theory. Its
procedure employs a smaller vcctor spacc and its parameters arc
determined by comparison o f predictions with a small number o f
observations.
An example of a scmicmpirical molccular theory is the л -electron
theory o f conjugated, unsaturatcd hydrocarbons. Here the size o f the
vcctor spacc is rcduccd by ignoring corc and 5-bondcd clcctrons and
employing a single n-orbital for cach carbon site. The size o f the vcctor
spacc can be further rcduccd by the use of either of two more approximate
theories: the n-HUckel molecular orbital theory, which resembles the
Bohr theory o f the atom, and the я-valence bond theory, which resembles
the ball-and-stick theory.
Text 14
Differentiating between Primary,
Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols
A primary or secondary aliphatic alcohol dissolved in pure glacial
acetic acid decolourizes a water solution of KMnO.», while a tertiary alcohol
fails to do so. A secondary alcohol will continue to rcact with KMn0
4
solution if a little concentrated sulphuric acid is added, while a primary
alcohol docs not. By means of Uiosc reactions one may distinguish between
primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols of the paraffin series. Further, no
more than one drop o f the alcohol is ncccssary to make the test, which fact
should make it especially interesting in investigations where only small
quantities of alcohol arc available.
A convenient procedure is as follows: A 4-inch test-tube is fitted
with a one-hole rubber stopper carrying a glass rod which rcachcs to the
243
bottom of the test-tube. Glacial acctic acid (3 ml.) is introduced into die
test-tube, and then one drop of the pure unknown is added. A saturated,
filtered solution of KMn0
4
in water is added, a drop at a time, to the
contents of the tube, with stoppering and vigorous shaking between cach
addition.
If no dccolourization o f die KMn0
4
takes place, the alcohol is tertiary.
If dccolourization takes place (best ascertained from time to time by
spotting the mixture by means of the glass rod into filter paper), the
addition o f KMn0
4
is continued a drop at a time until the pink colour of
KMnO< persists. When dccolourization has ccascd to take place, a drop
o f conccntratcd H
2
S 0
4
is added and the addition of KMn0
4
with shaking
is continued. If the pink colour is not discharged under these conditions,
the alcohol is primary. If dccolourization proceeds again after the addition
of HjS
0
4, followed by a final permanent pink colour, the alcohol is
secondary.
It is advisable to run a blank test of the glacial acctic acid used, bccausc
some glacial acid samples contain extraneous materials which react with
KMn0
4
solution.
This method has been found reliable for all aliphatic alcohols through
the amyl group. Whether it can be extended to other classes of alcohols
has not been determined.
To the student in the laboratory it would seem that this different
approach to the differentiation of the alcohols would be much more simple
and direct than the Lucas test currently in manuals.
Text 15
A Brief History of Polypeptide Chemistry
Protein chcmistry really began in the 1830s with Mulder’s systematic
investigation of nitrogenous biological materials, such as blood fibrin,
egg white, gelatins, and silk. In 1840, Huncfcld was the first to ciystallizc
a protein— viz., hemoglobin. During the following 90 years, amino acids,
the building blocks of protein, were isolated by many investigators, but
for many years it was not realized how amino acids were linked to form
proteins. In fact, it was not until 1902 that Fisher and Hofmcister
independently proposed that amino acids were joined together by peptide
bonds (—CO—NH—).
It was not the early work on protein chcmistry, however, that led to
the conccpt o f enzymes as catalysts o f biological reactions. Indeed, it
was the early research on fermentation of Lavoisier in the later 1700s
and the subsequent work by Schwann, Pasteur, and Buchner between
1830 and 1900 that led to the development o f this conccpt. Oncc the role
o f enzymes was realized, scientists, uncluding Harden and Young,
Embodcn and Meyerhof, Krebs, Lyncn and Lipmann, were eventually
able to formulate die individual steps o f most of the mctabolic processes
in the body.
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In 1926, Sumner made a tremendous advance when he recognized that
enzymes were, in fact, proteins. He came to this conclusion after he had
successfully crystallized a protein that was associated with enzymatic
activity (viz., urease) and noticcd that the degree of degradation of this
highlypurificd protein could be correlated with the disappearance of the
associated enzymatic activity. Before that time, it was thought that enzymes
might be special nonprotcin substanccs that happened to be associated
with proteins. In other words, it was thought that some proteins might
simply serve as passive, structural supports for enzymes. On the other
hand, Sumner’s discovery suggested that the enzymatic activity was related
to the structure o f the protein per sc. In the 1930s Northrop and Kunitz
purified and crystallized many enzymatic proteins and, thus, confirmed
Sumner as the father of modem cnzymatology.
Text 16
Characteristics of Mossbauer Spectra
To obtain a resonant gamma-ray absorption spcctrum it is ncccssary
to relate the transmission intensity to the instantaneous sourcc-absorbcr
velocity. In practicc there arc a number of methods which can be used to
accomplish this, and these can be roughly divided into two groups: those
which employ constant velocity drives and those which employ
continuously reliable velocity drives. The characteristics and advantages
of cach of these systems have been discusscd in detail by Wcrthcim and
elsewhere. In the present discussion we shall not explore any o f these
methods in detail, but will conccm ourselves only with the details of the
spcctra which arc obtained.
A typical Mossbauer spcctrum is a characteristic plot of the total
number o f events (counts) observed as a function o f sourcc-absorbcr
velocity (the standard convention is to represent motion of the source
toward the absorber by positive velocities and motion of the source away
from the absorber by negative velocities).
The profile of the rcsonancc maximum obeys (ideally) the Lorcntz
relationship:
constant
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