Figure 4. Growth of small-scale agricultural production, 1991-2013
Note:
“Small
-
scale producers”
includes both individual farms and households.
Source: Committee on Statistics, Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan (2014),
www.stat.gov.kz
,
accessed September 2014.
The transition has reversed the position of large-scale and small-scale farms in
their importance to total production, placing individual farms and households as the
dominant producers of agricultural products in Kazakhstan. Between 1991 and 2013,
1991
1995
2000 2005
2009
2013
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
Sh
ar
e
o
f smal
l-
sc
al
e
p
ro
d
u
ce
rs
in
to
tal
ag
ri
cu
ltu
ral
o
u
tp
u
t
(%
)
Agricultural land in use by small-scale producers (thousand hectares)
26
the total area of agricultural land in use by small-scale producers increased from
364 000 hectares to 50.1 million hectares. Livestock holdings saw a similar shift
over the same period, with households accounting for the majority of livestock
inventories since 1996. However, it is worth noting that there are important
structural differences between individual farms and households. Individual farms are
typically privately owned commercial operations that aim to market and sell their
production, whereas households are often subsistence-oriented, only selling their
surplus production on the market. A total of 164 856 individual farms were
registered in 2013, with an average land parcel of 302 hectares. In contrast, the
number of rural households stands at over 2 million, with an average land size of
0.13 hectares.
Small-scale producers account for the majority of agricultural production, yet
they are disproportionately affected by market and policy failures
The transition from central planning had important implications for agriculture,
leading to the emergence of distinct regional specialisations and substantial
geographical variations in the structure of production. Agricultural output is highly
fragmented in Kazakhstan, with small-scale farms accounting for the majority of
crop and livestock production. In 2013, households and individual farms accounted
for 76% of gross agricultural output in Kazakhstan: 66% of crop output and 89% of
livestock production.
The contribution of small-scale farming to gross agricultural output varies
significantly across Kazakhstan’s regions (Figure 5). Smallholders dominate
agricultural production in the southern and western regions, where households and
individual farms contribute over 90% of agricultural output. The northern regions of
Akmola, Kostanay and North Kazakhstan are major grain-producing regions, where
large-scale capital-intensive operations are well positioned in the market. In these
regions large-scale farms typically have established contracts with foreign buyers,
and are often vertically integrated in local and international supply chains.
27
Figure 5. Share of agricultural output by small-scale producers by region, 2013
Note:
“Small
-scale produc
ers”
includes both individual farms and households.
Source: Committee on Statistics, Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan (2014),
www.stat.gov.kz
,
accessed September 2014.
Similar results are observed in the data for crop and livestock production
(Figure 6). In 2013, households and individual farms produced over 80% of the
crops in the eastern, southern and western regions of Kazakhstan. These regions are
characterised by mixed farming, with numerous small-scale producers of meat, milk
and horticultural products. Smallholders also play an important role in the regions of
Kyzylorda, Pavlodar and Karagandy, accounting for more than 70% of crop
production.
The share of small-scale producers is even more significant for livestock
production: individual farms and households accounted for over 80% of livestock
output in 13 out of 14 regions of Kazakhstan, and over 90% in the western, southern
and eastern regions. The only exception is Kostanay, where smallholders account for
78% of livestock production.
28
Figure 6. Share of crop and livestock output by small-scale producers by region, 2013
Note:
“Small
-
scale producers”
includes both individual farms and households.
Source: Committee on Statistics, Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan (2014),
www.stat.gov.kz
,
accessed September 2014.
29
In spite of their dominant share in total production, small-scale producers in
Kazakhstan are faced with a number of market and policy failures that impede their
ability to access supply chains, compete with large-scale agricultural enterprises and
reach their full productivity potential.
2
The main obstacles include deficiencies in
basic rural infrastructure; limited access to agricultural education, R&D and
extension services; credit constraints; and a lack of mobility in the market for
agricultural land (OECD, 2013).
Infrastructure deficiencies remain widespread in remote rural areas of
Kazakhstan, imposing significant cost burdens on small-scale producers. These
impacts are exacerbated by low population densities and the wide dispersion of
agricultural production. Underdeveloped road networks in rural areas are a
significant constraint to the competitiveness of small farmers, who are often unable
to obtain the inputs needed for production, or transport and sell their produce during
winter. Capacity shortages in grain elevators and storage infrastructure,
underdeveloped transportation systems, and the lack of modern cold supply chains
also have a disproportionate impact on small farms. This leads to shorter supply
chains and large seasonal fluctuations in output, with households often producing for
home consumption or selling products of uneven quality to local markets and
intermediaries (Pomfret, 2014).
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in Kazakhstan, and irrigation
accounts for over 90% of water use in agriculture (mostly in the southern regions).
Irrigation infrastructure and drainage networks are typically operated and managed
by large-scale agricultural enterprises, having been inherited from collective farms
during the Soviet era. Inefficiencies due to deteriorating infrastructure and seepage
in unlined canals create substantial water losses, estimated at 30-50% of the total
volume of water withdrawn for irrigation (World Bank, 2007). As a result small-
scale producers are unable to access good quality irrigated land resources, and often
lack funding for the development and revitalisation of irrigation systems.
In contrast to large-scale agricultural enterprises, smallholders face substantial
difficulties accessing agricultural education, research and development (R&D), and
extension services. The shortage of qualified labour in rural areas impacts
disproportionately on small-scale producers, and funding for agricultural R&D is
scarce. Inefficiencies in the co-ordination of pre- and post-harvest services prevent
small farms from developing the technologies and skills needed to intensify
production (Poulton, Dorward and Kydd, 2010). The inability to access agricultural
extension and advisory services also constrains productivity growth, which is an
essential driver of competitiveness and sustainability in small-scale agriculture
(Heady, Alauddin and Rao, 2010).
30
Plant and animal health and food safety systems are outdated and
underdeveloped, and modern phytosanitary and veterinary laboratories are lacking.
This leads to greater risks for producers and consumers, preventing smallholders
from meeting quality standards and developing contractual arrangements to supply
their output to processors and retailers. During the Soviet period, household farmers
benefited from a symbiotic relationship with large-scale collective farms. In the
dairy and meat sectors, for instance, households were given access to veterinary
services, agronomists, animal production specialists and artificial insemination.
Privately-owned livestock were also provided with winter forage and feed
concentrate, and were transported to summer pastures together with the livestock
from collective farms. In turn, the output from households was instrumental in
helping collective farms to meet their production targets. Since the collapse of the
collective farm system, access to essential services has diminished and household
farmers have had to depend on their own resources (FAO, 2011).
Commercial credit and government-supported lending to small-scale
agriculture remains weak and underdeveloped in Kazakhstan. In particular, the
microfinance sector is fragmented and unsustainable, with a level of penetration
estimated at less than 1% of the population, and an aggregate loan portfolio ranging
between 0.3% and 0.5% of all credit to the private sector in 2012 (PlaNet Finance,
2014a). A network of credit unions, known as “credit partnerships”, was established
by the Agrarian Credit Corporation (a subsidiary agency of KazAgro). However, this
system is also ineffective and small-scale farms are often unable to participate,
primarily due to low levels of outreach and a large average loan size. Households
and individual farms are often faced with prohibitively high interest rates and
transaction costs, high risk levels, information asymmetries and stringent collateral
and regulatory requirements. This prevents them from obtaining sufficient capital to
finance pre-season expenditures, working capital, machinery and new technologies.
Agricultural land in Kazakhstan is characterised by low mobility, weak
property rights and significant regulatory and administrative obstacles to purchasing,
selling and leasing land. There are few incentives to buy land or allocate land to the
most efficient producers, due to low rental payments for long-term 49-year leases of
agricultural land, the prevailing single land tax regime and restrictions on sub-
leasing of land. As a result large land areas remain inactive or underutilised. In the
dairy and meat sectors, it is common for household farmers with small herds to
depend on communal pastures, which often suffer from overgrazing, poor
management and inadequate feed supply during winter (FAO, 2011). Lack of access
to land is therefore an important barrier for small-scale producers, as it inhibits
growth and prevents them from overcoming their structural size-related
disadvantages.
31
Policies introduced by Kazakhstan to help small-scale producers overcome
market failures and integrate with local supply chains
Developing large-scale commercial projects in the agricultural sector is an
overarching policy focus for Kazakhstan. In recent years, the government has
financed the construction and modernisation of large-scale milk, meat and poultry
production facilities, grain elevators, storage infrastructure, greenhouses, and
processing facilities. However, there is growing awareness within Kazakhstan that
measures to develop large-scale agriculture are not sufficient on their own, and
should be complemented by targeted interventions to improve the competitiveness
of households and individual farms. In particular, policy makers are beginning to
understand the importance of small-scale producers in ensuring food security,
reducing dependence on imported food products, improving rural livelihoods,
supporting regional development, and improving sustainable management of land
and water resources.
The government of Kazakhstan has introduced several policy measures to
support small-scale producers, with varying degrees of success. These include
investments in rural infrastructure, support for agricultural education, R&D and
extension services, the development of credit programmes for small-scale producers,
and the removal of regulatory and administrative obstacles to the acquisition of
agricultural land. However, the effectiveness of its policy implementation is
substantially weakened by the fragmented farm structure and low density of small-
scale production.
Investments in rural infrastructure
The government has invested heavily in major transportation infrastructure
works over the past decade, with substantial improvements to road and rail networks
across Kazakhstan. For instance, the construction of the Western Europe – Western
China International Transit Corridor includes 2 787 km of roads passing through
Kazakhstan and is expected to significantly improve trade integration with markets
in Europe and Asia. An infrastructure development plan for 2014-2020 was recently
adopted, including plans to renovate 30 000 km of roads and 8 202 km of railways,
along with other measures to develop transportation infrastructure (Astana Times,
2013). In spite of these efforts, road networks in remote rural areas remain
significantly less developed, imposing increased costs on small-scale farmers and
preventing access to local markets and supply chains. Support for the renovation and
reconstruction of rural infrastructure was introduced in the Programme for
Development of Rural Territories 2004-2010, managed by the Committee on Rural
Development under the Ministry of Agriculture. The budget for this programme was
32
relatively low (USD 7 million), and no specific policy framework for rural
development has been introduced since the completion of this programme.
The Programme for Development of the Agro-Industrial Complex 2010-2014
includes provisions to boost agricultural production and support infrastructure
development, through the construction of large-scale grain storage and milling
facilities. More recently, government funding under the new Agribusiness 2020
programme has been re-oriented to the meat sector, by supporting investment in
livestock facilities, feedlots and livestock breeding centres. For instance, KazAgro
Product recently financed the creation of two livestock breeding farms with a
capacity of 1 000 animals, and a feedlot with a capacity of 5 000 animals. The
majority of government support is provided in the form of concessional loans for
processing and storage facilities in the grain, dairy, poultry, beef and horticulture
sectors (OECD, 2013). Agricultural enterprises are the primary beneficiaries of these
programmes, and large-scale processing and storage infrastructure remains largely
inaccessible to households and individual farms.
Public investment to improve irrigation and drainage systems has been volatile.
Expenditure increased markedly under the Irrigation and Drainage Improvement
Project (IDP-1), supported by the World Bank from 1996 to 2004. The project
covered 32 000 ha of irrigated lands in nine regions of Kazakhstan. Funding for the
operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure dropped sharply in the
following years, and is due to increase again with the introduction of a second
Irrigation and Drainage Improvement Project (IDP-2). This project is also
financially supported by the World Bank, and will be implemented from 2013 to
2021. It includes funding of USD 343 million for the modernisation of irrigation and
drainage systems on over 100 000 hectares of land in four regions of Kazakhstan,
and is expected to yield benefits for a total of 40 000 households (World Bank,
2014a).
Support for agricultural education, R&D and extension services
Public support for agricultural education, R&D and extension services is
limited, and not sufficient to meet the needs of small-scale producers. There are 10
higher education institutes and 168 vocational education and training (VET) schools
for agriculture in Kazakhstan. KazAgro Innovations is responsible for agricultural
R&D, provided through 23 research institutes and a network of regional branches,
experimental stations and innovation centres. Despite sustained increases in funding
in recent years, public expenditure on agricultural R&D amounted to just USD 22
million in 2011 (OECD, 2013). This is equivalent to 0.5% of gross agricultural
output, compared with over 1% in most OECD countries; over 2% in Denmark and
33
Australia; over 3% in Japan, Iceland and Ireland; and over 4% in the United States
(OECD, 2011).
KazAgro Innovations established an extension system in 2009, with ten offices
operating in eight regions across Kazakhstan. Its extension centres provide a number
of services to farmers, including education on the practical application of new
technologies, remote consultations by telephone and direct consultations through
farm visits. In addition, KazAgro Marketing operates a network of 160 rural
information and consultation centres in all regions of Kazakhstan. The main tasks
undertaken include monitoring of food prices and the provision of advice, training
and business assistance to farmers. Each year, KazAgro Marketing provides targeted
information and advice to approximately 60 000 entities, or 2.5% of all farmers in
Kazakhstan (KazAgro Marketing, 2014). This suggests that the dissemination of
knowledge and new technologies in rural areas is limited in scale, with low levels of
outreach to households and individual farms.
The Ministry of Agriculture supervises veterinary services through the
Committee for Veterinary Control and Supervision, and phytosanitary services
through the Committee for State Inspection of Agribusiness. The committees and
their agencies work with local administrations to conduct inspections, prevent the
spread of diseases and dangerous organisms, and implement measures to protect
livestock and crops from diseases and ensure food safety. However, veterinary and
phytosanitary systems remain underdeveloped and typically fail to comply with
international standards, due to inadequate equipment and a lack of qualified staff and
trained specialists. Moreover, existing facilities and services have little outreach, and
are often inaccessible to rural households and individual farms.
Development of credit programmes for small-scale producers
Improving access to finance for small-scale producers is an important policy
priority for the government of Kazakhstan. The majority of financial support to
agriculture is currently provided through concessional credit programmes,
administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and various KazAgro agencies.
Concessional loans from KazAgro amounted to USD 2.3 billion, or 60% of the total
agricultural credit portfolio in 2012, and are primarily issued by three of KazAgro’s
subsidiary agencies: the Food Contract Corporation, the Agrarian Credit Corporation
and the Fund for Financial Support to Agriculture. The outreach of these three
agencies is limited, and loans are typically only delivered to farmers who are able to
meet collateral and reporting requirements. The high level of state involvement in
lending also reduces incentives for commercial banks to enter the market for
agricultural credit, with the result that demand for loans from small-scale farmers is
typically unmet by supply.
34
The Food Contract Corporation is responsible for state purchases of grain under
the 2001 Grain Law. Grain purchases are conducted according to regional
procurement quotas, and are typically acquired through compulsory sales from
large-scale farms with a minimum grain area of 250 hectares. The Food Contract
Corporation also provides selected producers with financing and input advances in
exchange for a share of the farm’s grain harvest. Purchases during the spring season
are made under forward contracts, allowing farmers to accumulate working capital
for sowing, harvesting and other operational expenditures. Grain stocks are
occasionally complemented by additional purchases from grain exporters,
particularly in years when the government’s official procurement quota has not been
met. Although annual spending on grain purchases averaged USD 490 million in
2009-2011, small-scale producers are typically unable to participate in these
programmes due to the minimum grain area requirement.
The Agrarian Credit Corporation (ACC) provides financial support for the
establishment of credit partnerships in rural areas. The current network includes 161
credit partnerships, with a total of 7 211 members (mostly small and medium-sized
individual farms) across 13 regions. However, the system suffers from poor local
management, a highly centralised governance structure and low outreach – less than
2% of farmers are members of a credit partnership. In addition, only one-third of
credit partnerships are estimated to be in a stable financial position (OECD, 2013).
Although the initial mandate of the ACC was to provide financial support to small-
scale producers, in recent years the approach has shifted somewhat to include
financing of larger loans for investment projects and programmes to stimulate
agricultural exports.
The primary objective of the Fund for Financial Support to Agriculture (FFSA)
is to provide investment support to a network of microfinance institutions (MFIs),
which independently provide micro-loans to rural farmers and entrepreneurs.
Between 2006 and 2008, 51 MFIs were established through FFSA investments in
their charter capital. A total of 66 868 micro-loans were issued by the FFSA
between 2005 and 2013, including both general-purpose loans for farmers and
targeted loans for the construction of greenhouses, harvesting activities and the
development of livestock production (FFSA, 2014). The FFSA had a gross loan
portfolio of USD 218 million in 2013, with 19 395 active borrowers. This represents
substantial growth in lending from a level of USD 19 million in 2006, although the
number of active borrowers has not increased proportionately (21 026 in 2006).
Consequently, the average loan size increased from USD 910 in 2006 to USD
11 234 in 2013 (Mix Market, 2014). Currently, the FFSA’s network of MFIs is
unsustainable and requires ongoing financial support from the government.
Furthermore, the relatively high average loan size and low level of penetration
35
implies that the current network of MFIs does not have sufficient capacity and is not
designed to meet the demand for microfinance from small-scale farmers.
Removal of regulatory and administrative obstacles to acquiring agricultural land
Reforms to land ownership in Kazakhstan have progressed significantly in
recent years, substantially reducing the level of state interference in the market for
agricultural land. The 2003 Land Code, implemented in 2005, allows for private
ownership of land with full property rights. These reforms are essential as they allow
agricultural land to be purchased, sold and used as collateral, facilitating growth in
small-scale farms. Between 2004 and 2010, 864 500 hectares of state-owned
agricultural land was sold to private owners, out of a total of 93 million hectares of
agricultural land.
In spite of these far-reaching structural reforms, low rents offered by the state
and the prevailing tax regulations have made long-term 49-year leases on
government-owned land the most popular and predominant form of land use. Under
the current system, individual farmers can guarantee land use for 49 years through a
single land tax payment, calculated as 0.1% to 0.5% of the cadastral value of the
land. Incentives for small-scale producers to purchase and invest in agricultural land
are also weakened by complicated regulatory procedures, restrictions on the sub-
leasing of land and a lack of confidence in the security of property rights, due to the
uncertainty created by land reforms during the transition period. According to the
Agency on the Management of Land Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan, only
1% of “land designated for agricultural use”
3
is privately owned, and the remaining
land is leased from the state (OECD, 2013).
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