TRANSLATION PRACTICE
Texts
Text 1
Conductance and Electrolysis
Generally speaking, the classification of a substancc as a non-clcctrolytc
or as an cicctrolytc is based on the conductance of its aqueous solution.
Aqueous solutions of non-clcctrolytcs do not conduct an clcctric current
to any greater extent than pure water docs, whereas aqueous solutions of
electrolytes conduct an clcctric current and undergo clcctrolysis. Weak
clcctrolytcs give solutions which arc relatively poor conductors bccausc
of a limited degree of ionization. On the other hand, aqueous solutions of
strong clcctrolytcs readily conduct an clcctric current.
If a strong cicctrolytc is formed as a result of a chcmical reaction
involving two weak clcctrolytcs, the conductancc of the resulting solution
increases. If the ions of a strong cicctrolytc are removed from solution as
an insoluble precipitate, or from a weak cicctrolytc with the ions of another
reactant, the conductancc of a mixture of the reactants is less than that of
the strong cicctrolytc. After the reaction is complete, the conductancc will
increase upon further addition of the second reactant, provided the latter
is a strong cicctrolytc.
Electrolysis always accompanies the passage of a direct current through
an aqueous solution. Cations arc rcduccd to a lower oxidation state, some
of them to the free state, at the cathodc; anions arc oxidized to ions with a
higher oxidation state, or to the free state, at the anode.
Text 2
Library* and You
Bccausc of the vast accumulation of data, today’s student of chcmistry
must rely on the literature more than ever before; it is therefore to his
advantage to bccomc acquainted with the organization and proper use of
the chcmical literature at the earlier stage of his training. A good way of
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helping him to accomplish this in an informal fashion is to cncouragc him to
acquire for his own collcction a core of rcfcrcncc books. A great number of
undergraduates as well as graduate students arc not aware of the wealth of
information available in basic rcfcrcncc tools such as dictionaries and
handbooks, simply bccausc they arc not in the habit of regularly consulting
them. By owing a number of these relatively inexpensive reference tools,
the student will have a great deal of information at his fingertips, and through
constant use of it will develop good library habits which will not only benefit
him throughout his professional career but also reduce his tendency to
memorize material which he can readily obtain from these books.
Text 3
Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy resembles Raman spectroscopy in that it provides
information on the vibrational and rotational energy levels of a species, but
it differs from the latter technique in that it is based on studying the light
transmitted through a medium after absorption, and not that scattered by it.
The techniques of Raman and IR spectroscopy arc generally considered
complementary in the gas and solid phases bccausc some of the spccics
under study may reveal themselves in only one o f the techniques.
Nevertheless, it must be stressed that Raman scattering is not affected by
the aqueous medium, whereas strong absorption in the infrared shown by
water proves to be a troublesome interfering factor in the study of aqueous
solutions by the IR method.
Text 4
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
The nuclei of atoms can be likened in some respccts to. elementary
magnets. In a strong magnetic field, the different orientations that the
elementary magnets assume correspond to different energies. Thus,
transitions of the nuclear magnets between these different energy levels
correspond to different frcqucncics of radiation in the short-wave, radio-
frequency range. Hence, if an electrolytic solution is placcd in a strong
magnetic field and an oscillating clcctromagnctic field is applied, the
nuclear magnets exchange energy (exhibit resonant absorption) when
the incident frequency equals that for the transitions of nuclei between
various levels.
Were this NMR to depend only on the nuclei of the spccics present in
the solution, the technique would be without point for the identification of
spccics in a solution. But the nuclei sense the applied field as modified by
the environment of the nuclei. The modification is almost exclusively due
to the nuclei and electrons in the neighbourhood of the sensing nucleus,
i. c., due to the adjacent atoms and bonds. Thus, NMR studies can be used
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lo provide information on the type of association between an ion and its
environmental particles, c. g., on ion-solvent interactions or ion association.
Text 5
Gold
Perhaps no other metal has played such an important part in the destiny
of man as gold has. For centuries, it has stood as a barometer of wealth
and nobility. To secure it, men have fought, suffered and died. Countries
have been founded through the search for it; kingdoms have been lost
bccausc of it.
Why?
Well, wc can supply three reasons. Value. Beauty. Pcrmancncc.
Obviously, there is a limited supply of the metal available which increases
its value. The fact that it is usually found free in nature makes it easy to
mine — if you can find it. That it is attractive, wc cannot deny. There arc
very few people who do not appreciate the warm, shining yellow beauty
of gold. (Wc would greatly appreciate having some.) And, finally, its
appcarancc is quite permanent. Aluminium bccomcs dull, iron rusts, coppcr
corrodes, silver tarnishes, but gold remains the same. (Although, it must
be dusted occasionally.)
Despite our glowing words above, metallic gold has very few practical
uses. It is really a metal to be looked at, not to be used, about its only use
at present is in the manufacture o f jewellery. And even then it must be
alloyed with other metals, usually coppcr or silver, as it is too soft to be
used in the pure state.
Gold is inactive and is not attacked by oxygen or ordinary acids. It
docs, however, react readily with chlorinc to form gold (auric) chloride,
AuClj. Thus, wc can dissolve it in aqua regia or chlorinc water, both o f
which supply chlorinc.
It is owing to its remarkable properties that gold as well as platinum
arc increasingly used in some fields where particular accuracy and
reliability arc needed.
Text 6
Actinium
Radioactive transition metal o f Group III. Atomic number 89. Symbol
Ac. All isotopes arc radioactive; atomic weight tables list the atomic weight
as [227], the mass number of the most stable isotope.
Actinium is exclusively tripositivc and resembles the tripositivc rare
earth elements in its chcmical properties. It forms insoluble compounds of
the same type as the lanthanide elements, such as the fluoride and oxalate.
The hydroxide is also insoluble. The similarities to the lanthanides appear
in the crystallization of double salts, such as, for example, with magnesium
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nitrate, where actinium follows the lanthanides and is very difficult to
separate from them. Differences from the lanthanides are to be found in
the extent to which complex ions arc formed, actinium being, in general,
less easily subject to complex ion formation than any of the lanthanide
elements. This is presumably related to the basic or clcctropositivc charactcr
of actinium, a consequence of its laigcr ionic radius, and it appears that
actinium is more basic than even lanthanum. Actinium goes with cerium
group of rare earths in those separations in which the yttrium group is
separated with the help of complcxing agents. The succcssful separation
of the lanthanide elements from each other by use of the ion exchange
resins is also applicable to the separation of actinium from the lanthanide
elements and the heavier tripositivc actinide elements.
Except for the sulphide, the compounds o f actinium arc colourless.
All of the pure compounds o f actinium which have been prepared and
whose structures have been determined arc isostuctural with the analogous
lanthanide and actinide compounds and in each the actinium is tripositivc.
In addition to the solid halides and oxyhalidcs, a number o f other
compounds such as scsquioxidc, sulphide, phosphate, oxalate, and a double
salt with potassium sulphate have been prepared.
Text 7
Radiation Effects on Polymers
Radiation exerts two opposing effects on polymers. On the one hand,
it breaks up the polymer molcculcs into smaller picccs. On the other, it
causes liberation of a hydrogen atom from each of the two adjoining
molcculcs with formation o f a link between the two molcculcs (cross-
linking). The existence of cross-links in a polymer makes the material
tougher and higher melting and is very desirable for certain applications.
The cross-linking o f polymers by radiation has been much studied.
The irradiation of any organic compounds results in breaking ofCH bonds,
leaving free bonds on the carbon atoms while the hydrogen atoms go off*
together in pairs to form hydrogen gas. In a liquid the resulting free radicals
can diffuse as a whole through the solution and eventually meet together
and combinc. In a solid polymer it is not dear how these centers get together.
One proposed mechanism is that a hydrogen atom from a neighbouring
carbon will pop into the vacatcd hydrogen spacc, producing a new free
bond on the atom adjaccnt to the original free bond position. This proccss
will continue, with the free bond flowing up and down the chain, until the
free bond happens to find itself next to a free bond formed on the adjaccnt
molecule which is likewise travelling up and down. Another mechanism,
possible perhaps only with amorphous polymer, is that the long-chain
molcculcs as a whole may move with respect to one another until the free
bonds find themselves in proximity.
Whatever the mechanism of cross-linking may be, the result is of
commercial value.
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Text 8
Л Metal that Doesn’t Sink
A little plate of greyish metal was as light as a chip o f wood and
didn’t sink in water. It was a sample of a magncsium-lithium alloy
developed at the A. Baikov Metallurgy Institute of the USSR Academy
of Scicnccs.
Silver-white magnesium is lighter than aluminium and superior to it
in heat capacity and in its capability to act as the main component of various
structural materials. It is, in fact, 1.5 times lighter than aluminium and 4.S
times lighter than iron. It doesn’t give off sparks from friction or on being
struck, and is easy to work and weld with, electrically or using gas.
Magnesium is also one of the most widespread metals. Its resources arc
dozens of times higher than those of nickcl, zinc, and lead.
As for lithium, the third clement on the Mendeleyev periodic table, it is
the lightest of all metals. Everything new and unusual appearing today in
metallurgy, chcmistry, and power-engineering is to a large extent conncctcd
with lithium. Scientists, engineers and inventors placc great hopes on it.
According to expert opinion, there is much more lithium in the earth’s
crust than, say, zinc or tin, 130 times more than cadmium and 160 more
than antimony. Another interesting fact: over the past 25 years alone, the
production of lithium metal in the West has increased 100-fold. Obviously,
there is no shortage of lithium in the world.
The installation used to producc magncsium-lithium alloys is an
elcctrically-hcatcd crucible. After definite proportions of magnesium and
lithium foundry pigs arc put into it, the crucible is hermetically scaled
and all air pumped out of it. Then the crucible chamber is filled with
argon, an inert gas. Melting, pouring and cooling arc all done in an airless
medium.
The new alloys will be widely used in these branches of engineering
where lightweight metals arc required to producc machine parts, equipment,
instruments, and household articles.
Text 9
Insulator Itarns into Superconductor
Having used ultrahigh pressures and critically low temperatures,
scientists at the Institute of High Pressures of the USSR Academy of
Scicnccs have managed to cffcct such a unique transformation as converting
a sulphur insulator into a superconductor...
Superconductivity, at which a conductor completely lacks resistance
to elcctric currcnt, was discovered more than 70 years ago. This
phenomenon occurs at temperatures around -273°C.
Present-day electronic, clcctrotcchnical apparatuses, instruments and
machines have been developed, operating on superconductors under
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conditions of low temperatures. Among them arc radio-receiving dcviccs
for detecting weak signals arriving from the depths of outer spacc, highly
cfTicicnt powerful, and yet small, current generators, transformers and cablcs.
The equipment that uses superconductors is expensive and is not
available for users at large. That is why scientists arc looking for materials
which would bccomc superconducting at a temperature of, for example,
liquid hydrogen, which is -252°C, or liquid nitrogen, which is -196°C.
Sulphur has been quite unexpectedly found among the superconducting
materials.
The main unit of this installation is a high-pressure chamber. It contains
two anvils of synthetic polycrystallinc diamond, “carbonado” or black
diamond. The surfacc of one anvil is flat, whereas the other one is shaped
as a cone. When comprcsscd, the anvil point develops a pressure of half a
million atmospheres! Under such conditions sulphur converts to a
“metallic” formation. “Metallic sulphur”, cooled by liquid helium, acquires
superconducting properties at a temperature of-269°C.
Experiments arc being continued and have so far yielded interesting
results. Sulphur has increased the temperature o f covcrsion into a
superconducting material to -242°C.
Up to now a champion in high temperature superconductivity has
been a niobium-to-gcrmanium compound. Its conversion temperature
into a superconducting state was -2S0°C. Now the leadership has passed
over to sulphur.
Text 10
Salt Shaker Wedding
On Friday evening, April 13, at five o’clock, Miss Chlorinc Halide
became the bride of Mr. Sodium Alkali in a double beaker ccrcmony at
the Little Church o f Mother Nature. Rev. Electro Valcncc performed the
ccrcmony.
The bride was given in marriage by her unclc, Mr. Argon Inert, one o f
the community’s most prominent bachelors. The bride’s eldest sister Miss
Iodine Halide, was her maid of honour. Misses Bromine and Fluorine
Halide were bridesmaids; little Master Eka-Cacsium was the ring bearer.
Mr. Alkali chosc his best man his brother, Mr. Potassium Alkali.
Messers Lithium, Rubidium, and Caesium Alkali were ushers. The bride
was never lovelier than in her wedding gown of white ccllulosc acetate
which blended perfectly well with her blond beauty. The maid of honour
wore a stccl-bluc-grcy gown of viscose. The bridesmaids were gowned in
reddish-brown and yellow, respectively.
Following the ccrcmony, a reception was held at the Electrolytic Tea
Room for the immediate family. Brine and carbohydrates were served.
The former Miss Chlorinc Halide is a graduate of Anode High School
and Electronic Collcgc, where she was a member of the Beta Ray Society.
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At present, she is connected with Valence's Mill where she is head
blcaching agent.
Mr. Sodium Alkali is a graduate of Cathodc High School and Cation
College, where he was activc in athlctics, particularly swimming. Mr. Alkali
has travelled extensively on land, sea, and in the air. During the war he
had the honour of serving his country in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps,
and Air Corps. In civilian life the groom holds a prominent position with
the Elcctrochcmical Metallic Company.
After the rcccption the couple left for the Great Salt Lake Region of the
United States where they will make their home among their many friends.
Text 11
The Role of Theory in Chemistry
We start at the beginning and define science as a set of observations
and theories about observations. Wc then define theory as a dcvicc for
making predictions and correlations o f observations. A theory is
composed of axioms, which arc not necessarily self-evident, procedure,
and the output o f the procedure. The axioms identify the system, select
the procedure and its parameters, and interpret its output. Each theory is
judged by the following pragmatic criteria listed in the order o f
decreasing importance.
How diverse is it?
How accuratc is it?
How simple is it?
Like all scicncc, theories evolve; they do so bccausc the basis of our
scicntific knowledge is constantly changing. The best theory at a particular
point in time is the theory that best satisfies the above criteria. It is not to
be judged on a political or a religious basis.
A theory evolves. The axioms arc conccivcd in the mind of the theorist
who also may double as an experimentalist. The output o f the theory arc
predictions and correlations that may suggest new experiments to the
experimentalist. The predictions and correlations arc then compared with
observations. If the agreement between prcdictions-corrclations and
observation is “good” the theory is a “good” theory, which is a pragmatic
value judgement. If the agreement is poor — which occurs sometimes
bccausc new observations have been made — a better theory must be
found by some theorist generating new axioms and a new cycle. This
axiomatic-cum-pragmatic (ACP) cycling is continued until the agreement
between theory and experiment bccomcs “good”. Wc call this proccss
the ACP epistemology o f science bccausc (1) epistemology is the
acquisition and validation o f knowledge and (
2
) wc wish to distinguish
our simplistic view from the more erudite views o f the professional
philosophers.
The ACP epistemology can be applied to areas outside o f scicncc.
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1 4 , Л I 1 ^
There is a wide variety of chcmical and physical theories from which
wc select as our example theories of matter (atoms, molecules, solids,
nudci, and elementary particles). Wc can illustrate the ACP cpistcmology
with the familiar ball-and-stick theory of molcculcs. This theory employs
sticks and coloured balls with holes drilled in them at prescribed angles.
The procedure consists of assembling the balls and sticks into figures in
all possible ways. The predictions of the theory includc molccular geometry
and the number of isomers cxpcctcd for the moleculc in question. Wc all
feel comfortable with this ball-and-stick theory bccausc it operates in the
three-dimensional, classical world of our senses and seems “real” to us.
While it is a very useful theory, it has a number of significant failures. For
example, it fails to predict both the geometry and the number of isomers
of benzene. More seriously, it fails to predict the clcctronic, vibrational,
and rotational spcctra o f molcculcs. This failure to predict spcctra is
common to all classical theories and has made ncccssary the development
o f a new theory which includes predictive powers in this area. The
nonclassical quantum theory is a theory that predicts more diversely, more
quantitatively, but not more simply than the ball-and-stick theory.
Quantum theory has two essentially equivalent versions: one concerned
with wave mechanics (derived from Schrocdingcr’s work) and one
concerned with matrix mechanics (due to Dirac-Hciscnbcig) which is our
choice. The procedure of the matrix mechanics theory o f matter (MMTM)
is very interesting but is not relevant to the application of the procedure. It
employs vector space and their bases, operators, matrices, secular equations,
eigenvectors, eigenvalues, groups, group algebras, etc., conccpts that arc
well known to mathematicians but essentially unknown, to beginning
physicists and chcmists. In conscqucncc MMTM may seem less “real” to
these beginners than the classical ball-and-stick theory. The MMTM
procedure can be applied uniformly to atoms, molcculcs, solids, nuclci,
and elementary particlcs. It is dear that the conccpt of structure is much
simpler and more intuitive in the ball-and-stick theory than in the MMTM
theory. The MMTM structure concept is that of a set of building blocks
(basis vector o f a vcctor space) that arc assembled under supervision of
the Hamiltonian into a physically significant set of structures (eigenvectors
to the Hamiltonian).
The numerical and algcbraic calculations required in the MMTM
procedure can become quite tedious but fortunately many o f them have
been or can be programmed for personal computers. The calculations of
MMTM then bccomc trivial and operational familiarity is quickly
acquired. Consequently, the challenging part of MMTM bccomcs the
selection o f the vcctor spacc and the Hamiltonian and then the
interpretation of the output.
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