The fifth chapter describes morphological structure of the cave labyrinth. Basing
on morphological-morphogenetic criteria, the Zoloushka cave system was divided into 18
autonomic areas. A complex characteristic and physiognomic features of all these areas
are presented. At the end of this chapter, general morphometric regularities of the cave
net as a whole are discussed. The following fluctuations were analysed and explained:
mean height of corridors (H), mean width of corridors (B), coefficient of corridor isometry
Ki, coefficient of surface karstification Ks, coefficient of volume karstification Kv, density of
cave corridors G, specific surface Su, specific volume Vu, and others.
The sixth chapter discusses the hydrology of the cave system. At the beginning of
this chapter the features of water circulation in the cave block are described (in the past
and at present), and types of waters taking part in cave circulation are presented. Special
attention was paid to anthropogenic changes of groundwater regime (pumping up the
water from the quarry and development of depression cone). The importance and size of
anthropogenic activation of water circulation as a speleogenesis factor and engineering-
geological (rapid increase of subsidence number) factor have been estimated. The
character of cave waters (typology and regime of groundwater aquifers) as well as its
natural and anthropogenic influences are discussed. Hydrodynamic phenomena
accompanying artificial lowering of water table and their morphological consequences
(erosional canyons in the clayey floors of corridors etc.) are described.
The second part of the chapter presents chemical composition of cave waters
including microelements, as well as their changes connected with human impact into
groundwater complex. Geochemical properties of water (content of organic carbon,
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soluble forms of iron, Eh and pH), hydrochemical stratification of lacustrine cave water,
intensity of their sulphate aggressiveness are discussed. Hydrogeochemical evolution of
cave water reservoirs on the background of permanent human impact (water pumping) is
described.
In the seventh chapter the problems of cave roof collapse and development of
sinkholes above the cave are presented. The stage character of this process is
underlined. The mechanism of sinkholes development in natural conditions and under
human impact is described, and factors influencing roof and surface collapse are
discussed. The regularities of distribution of roof collapse points within the cave are
presented, anthropogenic activation of the process of roof collapse is underlined, the
hazard of sinkhole and subsidence development over the cave is estimated.
The eighth chapter concerns cave sediments. Taking into account their origin they
are divided into four types: residual, destructional (breaking of coulisses), water
mechanical (deposited clayey suspended matter), water chemical (deposited chemical
compounds) and collapse deposits. The lithology of sediments, their chemical composition
and microelement content, grain-size specification, physic-mechanical features, conditions
of origin and factors of distribution within the cave are described. While presenting
mechanical water sediments a special attention was paid to cave clay (unique plasticity
and large water capacity), which is a result of disintegration, displacement and diagenesis
of upper Badenian scree material.
Special attention in the chapter is paid to chemigenic iron-manganese sediments,
which, taking into account their large number and diversity, represent one of the most
interesting features of the cave - they are its "label". Iron-manganese hydroxides of the
Zoloushka Cave are a clear sedimentological consequence of hydrogeochemical
transformations induced by human impact. The fact that the cave became uncovered by
the excavation and groundwaters were pumped out caused changes in chemical
composition of karst waters, geochemical properties (Eh, pH) of the environment, and -
as a result - conditions of migration and accumulation of chemical elements. The
following forms of Fe and Mn hydroxides occurrence in the cave are described: aureolas,
individual layers, layer interbedding, powder accumulations and covers, grape-like
aggregates, liver-like aggregates, stalactite-like and stalagmite-like forms; their
mineralogical and chemical composition, peculiarity (similarity to oceanic forms) and
development are discussed. The Fe and Mn hydroxides of the Zoloushka Cave represent
very young forms (anthropogenic stage). The active phase of their deposition lasted from
several months to several years. The discharge of iron and manganese forms by karst
waters was mainly connected with oxygen penetration to the cave (uncovering by
excavation) and rapid change of reducing geochemical conditions into oxygenic.
The phenomena which occurred in Zoloushka Cave may be treated as
anthropogenically accelerated chemical experiment, which, in a magnitude form,
demonstrates the character and mechanism of geochemical transformations, which
accompanied the transfer of karst aquifer from a phreatic state to a new hydrodynamic
state (drained water-bearing horizon). This situation makes it possible to assume that
layers of iron-manganese sediments, which are found in the cross-sections of other
labyrinth caves not only in this area may be treated as a hydrogeochemical
(hydrodynamic) marker. They evidence the stage of the transition from a karst aquifer with
typical closed confined-phreatic regime with reducing anaerobic conditions to a new
hydrodynamically open state with a free ground water surface and free oxygen access.
At the end of this chapter, the sediments of a problematic genesis are also
described - loose carbonate skeleton sediments at the roofs of cave corridors, which
origin is associated with decrease of karst water pressure and the aquifer degasification in
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the moment of its hydraulic opening (this phenomenon took place a long before
anthropogenic impact on to aquifer).
The chapter is finalised with the description of morphological changes and
deformation of cave sediments as a result of their drainage and drying in new subsurface
conditions.
The ninth chapter concerns microclimatic conditions of the cave. In the first part,
the processes of air circulation with the surface are described and microclimatic division of
the cave is shown. The features of thermal-moisture regime of the underground
atmosphere are discussed. In the second part a special attention is paid to gas
composition of the cave air including its features, changeability in space, vertical
stratification, as well as reasons and mechanisms of CO
2
accumulation.
The tenth chapter is dedicated to signs of life in the cave. Ecological specificity of
the Zoloushka Cave environment is discussed. Special attention is paid to
microorganisms. Main types and generations of bacteria present in the cave are
discussed including their relation to different elements of cave environment, functional
specificity and physiological activity. The role of microorganisms are discussed in details
including their share in accumulation of sulphur hydrogen, development of sulphate and
sulphide compounds, production of CO
2
and nitrogen, development of iron-manganese
sediments. Main types and cycles of biochemical reactions which occurred in the
underground environment of the cave during its anthropogenic stage of development are
presented.
The eleventh chapter discusses the problems of the cave genesis and age.
Zoloushka is a "child" of pressure-ascending transition of groundwater through the
gypsum layer to a local erosional base - the bed of Prut valley. The groundwater
stagnated in fissures and being under a large pressure became activated in the moment
when the Prut uncovered screen cover of clays. This caused relatively rapid corrosional
enlargement of fissure spaces (main phase of speleogenesis), development of structural
nets in the gypsum and development of columnar chambers.
Basing on the basic principles of speleogenetical analysis (geological-historical rule,
succeeding development rule and rule of local conditions) the history of karst development
in this area is presented and several stages of its development are distinguished (middle
Badenian, upper Badenian - lower Sarmatian, Sarmatian - Mesopleistocene,
Neopleistocene - Holocene, modern). The most important events in term of speleogenetic
development are presented in details. The main phase of speleogenesis occurred in the
mid Neopleistocene.
At the end of this chapter the problems of potential dimensions of the cave
labyrinth are discussed, and its different character as compared to other huge cave
labyrinths of Western Ukraine (conditions and mechanism of speleogenesis, age, etc.) is
shown.
The final twelfth chapter discusses the scientific and practical importance of
the cave. Some theoretical problems are presented (palaeogeography of the region, origin
of deposits, sedimentogenesis of gypsum), which solutions may be found basing on
information from Zoloushka investigations. The aspects of cave protection are discussed
and perspectives of its multi-direction use are proposed (nature monument, object of
stationary investigations, tourism, recreation-balneotherapy complex, economic object,
etc.).
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Figure captions
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.1. Map of the cave in individual stages of the mapping.
Fig. 1.2. Dynamics of cave mapping in the period 1977-1999.
Fig. 1.3. Dynamics of papers concerning geological-karst investigation problems of the
cave (vertical - number of papers).
Fig. 1.4. Dynamics of papers concerning speleomedical investigation problems of the
cave (vertical - number of papers) (basing on the specification prepared by A. Bobylev).
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.1. Location of the cave.
Fig. 2.2. Location of the cave on the background of main administrative units of the
region.
Fig. 2.3. Distribution of Badenian lithological facial complexes within external foreland of
Carpathian arch:
1 - areas without Badenian sediments, 2 - probable limit of sea basin. Lithological facial
complexes: 3 - terrigenic, 4 - carbonate, 5 - sulphate, 6 - chloride, 7-8 - Internal and
External zones of Sub-Carpathian Graben, 9 - Carpathian mountainous area, 10 -
Western-European Platform, 11 - Misian Plate, 12 - Eastern-European Platform
(according to Gajdin, Rudko, 1998).
Fig. 2.4. Distribution of sulphate rocks in the Western-Ukrainian region (Fig. of A.
Klimchouk).
Fig. 2.5. Location of the Zoloushka Cave at the background of main tectonic units of
Carpathian region (A) and the Prut-Dniestr interfluve (Б):
1 - gypsum series, 2 - series of Badenian-Sarmatian, mainly clayey deposits overlying
gypsum layer, 3 - sub-gypsum Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks.
Fig. 2.6. Geology and karst of the Zoloushka Cave area (geological-karst profile):
1 - Upper Badenian clay, 2 - gypsum, 3 - marls and sandy-carbonate sediments of
Lower Badenian and Cenomanian, 4 - karst cavities in gypsum, 5 - karstified surface of
gypsum with filling sediments, 6 - faults (certain and probable), 7 - horizon of karst waters
within the hydraulic depression caused by pumping.
Fig. 2.7. Thickness of over-gypsum sediments in the Zoloushka Cave area:
1 - isolines of the thickness of over-gypsum sediments (in meters), 2 - river, 3 - probably
limit of Upper Badenian clayey-carbonate sediments in the Prut valley, 4 - Krivski quarry,
5 - Zoloushka Cave.
Fig. 2.8. Geomorphological location of the cave area at the background of main
morphostructural elements of the region (A) and the Prut-Dniestr interfluve (Б).
Fig. 2.9. Geomorphological map of the cave area:
1 - the Prut floodplain, 2 - 1st terrace, 3 - 2nd terrace, 4 - 3rd terrace, 5 - escarpment of
the 3rd terrace, 6 - 4th terrace, 7 - escarpment of the 2nd terrace, 8 - escarpment of the
1st terrace, 9 - floodplain scrolls, 10 - inselberg hillocks within terraces, 11 - karst dolines
and hollows, 12 - landslides, 13 - Krivski quarry, 14 - spoil-heaps, 15 - springs, 16 -
cave.
Fig. 2.10. Bukovinka Cave (A - according to Ridush et al., 2000) and its location within
Mamalyzski tectonic block (Б):
A: 1 - galleries of main horizon, 2 - galleries of upper horizon, 3 - flooded galleries.
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В: area of surface karst, 2 - Zoloushka Cave, 3 - Bukovinka Cave. B: 1 - alluvial and
deluvial sediments of the Matka (Stalnivka) valley, 2 - Cenomanian carbonate
sandstones, 3 - gypsum, 4 - Upper Badenian clayey sediments and layer of Ratynian
limestones, 5 - sediments of river terraces.
Fig. 2.11. Karstification of gypsum basing on geophysical investigations in the area
between the Matka valley and Mamalyga-Chotin road (materials of Lvov Geological
Company):
1 - karst cavities filled with deposits, 2 - deposit free karst cavities, 3 - isolines of the
thickness over-gypsum deposits, 4 - road.
Fig. 2.12. Change of the character and karst intensification of gypsum in Manalyzski
tectonic block together with the distance increase from the Prut river:
1 - loess-like terrace deposits, 2 - alluvial (gravel) terrace deposits, 3 - Upper Badenian
clay, 4 - layer of Ratynian limestones, 5 - clayey sediments deformed as a result of
subsidence, 6 - deposits of underground cavities, 7 - marls, 8 - sub-gypsum carbonate-
sandstone sediments.
Fig. 2.13. Change of gypsum thickness and its surface in the area located south-east of
the Krivski quarry (data from exploratory drillings).
Fig. 2.14. Topographic map of the fragment of the Prut valley between the river and the
quarry (geological profile is marked along the railway А-Б).
Fig. 2.15. Simplified geological profile along the railway located on the area of the Prut's
second terrace, at the foot of the third terrace (see Fig. 2.14-2.16):
1 - loess-like terrace deposits, 2 - clayey sediments of the floodplain scroll, 3 - motley
clay, silt, loess and gravels of terrace fades and floodplain scrolls of the second terrace, 4
- alluvial gravels of channel and karst facies of the second terrace, 5 - Upper Badenian
clay (from subsidence) in the places of corrosional impact of confined ascending waters, 6
- sub-gypsum carbonate-sandstone sediments, 7 - gypsum.
Fig. 2.16. Probable tectonic faults in the cave area:
1 - large fault along the foot of the Prut third terrace (downthrow range from 3 to 6 m), 2 -
probable smaller faults, 3 - the zone of graben-like fault in the Pacak valley.
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.1. Geological profile of Krivski quarry:
1 - Holocene (Q
IV
). Forest dark-grey soil, 2-3: Middle Pleistocene. Sediments of the 3
rd
(Q
1-2lial
) and 4
th
(Q
3-4
) terrace of the Prut: loess (2), gravels (3), 4-5: Neogene. Upper
Badenian (N
1
bd
3
): silty clay (4) with interbeddings of limestones and sandstones (in the
lower part of the profile) (5), 6-7: Middle Badenian (N
1
bd
2
): grey, platy, aphanitic
limestones (6), grey and grey-brown coarse-, medium-, fine- and aphanitic gypsum (7), 8
- Lower Badenian (N
1
bd
1
): compact greenish grey marls, 9-10 Cretaceous. Cenomanian:
bluish grey, afanitic, clayey limestones (K
2
s
2
) (9), bluish grey, quartz-glauconite
sandstones (K
2
s
1
) (10), 11 - karst waters, 12 - karst cavities with filling deposits.
Fig. 3.2. Changes of chemical composition of gypsum and their admixtures along vertical
profile of gypsum layer (according to Maklashin, 1988).
Fig. 3.3. Vertical changeability of chemical composition of gypsum in Mamalyzski quarry
(basing on data included in Tab. 3.1.).
Fig. 3.4. Change of textural-structural features of gypsum in vertical profile of gypsum
layer (generalisation based on observations in the quarry and in the cave near Filipcovo
Lake).
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Fig. 3.5. The middle part of the gypsum layer cut by the quarry's escarpment. Undulated-
stratified character of the middle part of the gypsum profile is underlined by selective
dissolution (with different speed) of medium- and fined-grained gypsum (Photo B. Ridush).
Fig. 3.6. Cave corridor developed in the middle (stratified) part of the gypsum profile (area
of Colorado Cave) (Photo B. Ridush). Uneven, ribbon-like profile of walls indicates
selective (different speed) character of dissolution of medium-crystalline (convex parts)
and fine-crystalline (concave parts) types of gypsum.
Fig. 3.7. Textures on flat roof of cave corridors which are shown in transversal cross-
section of stratified-undulated structures of the middle part of gypsum layer.
Fig. 3.8. Changes of x-ray-structural characteristics (А, Б, B) of gypsum deposits and their
dissolution (Г, Д) at different speeds of water movement in a vertical profile of a gypsum
layer (according to Makłashin, 1988):
A - degree of deformation of crystal lattice, Б - importance of microtensions, В - degree
of rock "texturing", Г - rock dissolution at zero speed of water movement (0 m/min), Д -
rock dissolution at speed of water movement of 8.5 m/min.
Fig. 3.9. Aggregates of large crystals of gypsum located in the mass of grain-crystalline
gypsum: A - corroded aggregate with round edges (Chernovitskich Speleologov
Chamber), Б - crystalline-block aggregate in a gypsum wall of the quarry.
Fog. 3.10. Monocrystalline aggregate of gypsum in the roof of a cave corridor uncovered
by corrosion as a result of slower (as compared to the adjacent rock) dissolution (Photo V.
Kiselov).
Fig. 3.11. Corroded surface of a monocrystalline gypsum patch in the roof of a cave
corridor (Stometrovka).
Fig. 3.12. A typical stratified rhythmite in a gypsum mass. Kobylanskaya Prospekt.
Fig. 3.13. Uncovered by corrosion gypsum-carbonate rhythmite in the wall of a the cave
corridor (Photo B. Ridush).
Fig. 3.14. Layer of Ratynian limestone covering gypsum.
Fig. 3.15. Lithological changeability of sediments at the contact of gypsum and overlying
them Ratynian limestones basing on observations in different parts of the cave.
Fig. 3.16. Profile of over-gypsum sediments in the north-eastern wall of the quarry.
Fig. 3.17. Part of the profile of over-gypsum sediments visible in a dome of a collapsing
floor (Lunny Grotto).
Fig. 3.18. Alluvia of the 3
rd
terrace of the Prut valley uncovered in the quarry.
Fig. 3.19. Landslide at the slope of the Pacak valley flowing over the cave (Photo B.
Ridush).
Fig. 3.20. Deformations of clayey over-gypsum sediments influenced by karst.
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.1. Map of Zoloushka Cave (Chernovcy Speleological Club).
Fig. 4.2. Corridor in Centralny area (photo V. Kiselov).
Fig. 4.3. Examples of corridors of Zoloushka Cave: A - corridor in the area of
Chernovitskich Speleologov Chamber, Б - corridor in Metropoliten area (photo V.
Kiselov).
Fig. 4.4. Corridor in Perspectiv area (System D) (photo V. Kiselov).
Fig. 4.5. Characteristic transversal cross-sections of the cave conditioned by the intensity
of their corrosional opening and degree of filling by cave deposits.
Fig. 4.6. Vystavochny Chamber adjacent to Chernovitskich Speleologov Chamber. In the
cross-sections of corridors a cross-section of a "key hole" type is visible (photo S.
Volkov).
397
Fig. 4.7. Examples of chambers developed at the crossings of cave corridors in Centralny
and Zachodni-Anakonda areas.
Fig. 4.8. Junction of corridors of cave upper horizon and development of canyon-like
chamber in Colorado area.
Fig. 4.9. Relation of corrosional forms of different size in the cave with
speleomorphogenetic factors.
Fig. 4.10. Example on imposed dome forms (kettles) of confined genesis in the cave roof
(Photo S. Volkov).
Fig. 4.11. A confined form - corrosional pipe below the floor of Ratynian limestone,
uncovered during excavation works in the quarry (Photo S. Volkov).
Fig. 4.12. Poligenetic fracturing of gypsum in the wall of Krivski quarry.
Fig. 4.13. Isoline map of a length (A) and number of fissures cutting (Б) at 225 m
2
of the
surface of a cave area (according to A. Piechorkin, 1986).
Fig. 4.14. Relation of the direction of tectonic fissures in Krivski quarry (A) and directions
of cave corridors in Zoloushka Cave (Б).
Fig. 4.15. Tectono-deriative geomethsation of primary polygonal system:
1 - polygonal system of primary contraction fissures, 2 - "animation" by planetary-
rotational tectonic tensions of NW and NE elements of polygonal system and development
of new tensions on these directions, jointing of elements of the same direction into larger
fissures, development of new elements conditions by tectonics in tension areas, 3 - part
of cave labyrinth developed along fissure system on Fig. 2, 4-5 possible methods of
interpretation (basing on map 3) of initial fissuring: 4 - lithogenetic, 5 - tectonogenetic.
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