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1768 academician Peter S. Pallas wrote in his work 
«Travelling in Various Areas of Russian State”: 
«The Kamyshlovka is small, but it is running here 
(near Melinichniy village) very rapidly». It begins 
at a small Kamysakty stream, fl owing down from 
the Kokchetau upland to Tarangul lake, from 
which at present the Kamyshlovskiy ravine is 
represented by a chain of lakes: Balykty, Zhilandy, 
Aksuat, Pitnoye, Polovinnoye and others – to the 
Irtysh River. North Kazakhstan is characterized by 
a great number of ravines, cutting slopes of river 
valleys down up to 30-40 m. Many of them have 
their own names: Chudasay (14 km), Boganata 
(15 km), Aleksandrovskiy (6.6 km), Malitsevskii 
(5.9 km) and others.  In Malitsevskiy and 
Aleksandrovskiy ravines, where ground waters 
come to the surface, water fl ows for a long time.
Such rivers of North Kazakhstan, as the 
Nura and the Chaglinka have an internal fl ow. 
The  fi rst one begins in Kazakh upland - Sary-
Arka and running across Central Kazakhstan 
fl ows into Kurgalidzhino Lake. The headwaters of 
the second lake are located in Kokchetau upland. 
Running northeastward within the Kokchetav 
administrative area, it fl ows into Shagly-Tengiz 
Lake; in the midstream of the Chaglinka there is a 
number of former riverbeds and temporary water 
fl ows in springtime.
The whole territory of North Kazakhstan 
is characterized by sharp continental climate. It is 
preconditioned by prevalence of moderate (arctic) 
air. The continental nature depends on relatively 
high  fl uctuation of lowest (January) and highest 
(July) temperatures. The climate of the region 
is also peculiar for rather sharp differences of 
temperature regime from year to year. The average 
precipitation amount is approximately 300 mm 
per annum and it is distributed throughout the 
territory more or less evenly. The distribution 
of precipitations per months and seasons is 
different: up to 86% of the total amount falls in 
a warm period (April-October), with the highest 
level of them in July (50-70 mm). Only 14-19% 
of annual precipitation amount falls in a cold 
period (November-March), with the least amount 
in February-March (10 mm) (Фельдман, 1960, 
35 p.). The total amount of precipitations is 
sharply  fl uctuating. The years with dry weather 
are alternating with years with humid weather. In 
dry years the total precipitation amount may reach 
65-70% of the average amount for several years, 
and in humid periods they exceed them by one and 
a half times. The warm temperature in the area 
depends not only on the amount of solar radiation 
received, but also on circulation processes, which 
also predetermine the amount and the nature 
of atmospheric precipitations. As a whole the 
circulation regime is characterized by prevalence 
of winds with a west component - south-west, west 
and northwest winds (Галахов, 1959, 213 p.).
In North Kazakhstan, where the watershed 
areas are characterized by poor fl ow, the soils 
are very saline and rifts are created due to 
low temperatures and little snow. Humus and 
vegetation roots penetrate deep into the soil that 
is an additional way of humus formation. That 
predetermined high humus content (compared to 
black soils in the European part of the USSR) at 
a shortcut humus profi le (Дурасов, 1958, 31 p.).
In the central part of Kazakhstan there 
are dark alkaline soils due to saline soil-forming 
rocks and a dry climate. In the upland areas 
macadam, underdeveloped and thin soils on thick 
rocks prevail (Стороженко, 1952, 89 p.). Along 
the Ishim River there are typical fl oodplain soils 
occupying a relatively narrow band of 1-2 to 10-
15 km in different areas. The steppe black soils are 
characterized by rifts but there are no rifts in the 
soils of the valleys (Глазовская, 1952, p.57).
In relation to the nature of the vegetable 
cover North Kazakhstan may be divided 
approximately in two parts: the south steppe and 
the north partially wooded steppe. The fi rst  one 
is peculiar for its inconsiderable wood areas, and 
the second part is characterized by alternation 
of wooded and open steppe areas. The areas are 
covered by woods and shrubberies and occupy up 
to 23% of the area; in the steppe part they occupy 
nearly 10% only. So, the area under consideration 
is an area connecting the steppe zone in the south 
and partially wooded steppe in the north. The wood 
vegetation is represented by separate groves called 
«clumps of woods» consisting mainly of birch 
trees with some aspens and (Демидовская, 1961, 
12 p.). Grasses were recently represented mainly 
by cereals – the feather grass, the fescue and others 
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forming thick vegetation. Water meadows are 
distributed in river valleys. In fl oodplain alluvial 
areas mixed grass meadows are of a steppe nature 
(Растительность  степей  Северного  Казахстана 
1961, p. 135).
The fauna of North Kazakhstan is of motley, 
mixed nature due to the distribution of the mosaic 
of clumps of woods, lakes, reed areas and sedge 
swamps. The steppe areas are inhabited by many 
insect and small rodent species. These are the 
Siberian locust, the Moroccan locust consuming 
much vegetation. Of small rodents the great jerboa, 
the gopher should be mentioned, which in turn are 
hunted by such predators as the steppe polecat 
and the fox, and of feathered predators - the kite, 
the common buzzard and others. Other feathered 
species are Eurasian skylarks, tawny pipits and the 
Ortolan bunting, gyrfalcon, bustard, little bustard, 
Eurasian curlew, quail, grey partridge, starling, 
sparrow and many others. Of reptiles only the sand 
lizard should be mentioned.
The clumps of woods provide habitat for 
small mammals – a plenty of the red-backed 
vole, the fi eld mouse, the common hedgehog and 
others. Commercial mammals are represented 
by the white hare, the fox, the badger and the 
wolf. Of ungulate animals there are some habitat 
areas of the Siberian roe deer, the maral and the 
moose. The forest vegetation of river valleys was 
also inhabited by the beaver, which disappeared 
in North Kazakhstan in the beginning of XIX 
century. (Костенко,  Башанов, 1960, 76 p.). Of 
dendrophile birds the clumps of woods provide 
habitat for the great spotted woodpecker, the 
Eurasian wryneck, the oriole, the tomtit. The 
groves are inhabited by the cuckoo, rooks, magpies 
and ravens. Of predatory birds small falcons, the 
red-footed falcon, the kestrel, the merlin should 
be mentioned. There are also other birds such as 
the black grouse, the willow ptarmigan and others 
(Формозов, 1969, p. 258).
The fauna of lakes and wetlands of North 
Kazakhstan is rather specifi c. The size of the 
lakes, the feeding grounds, the fi sh stock and 
the number of invertebrate animals predetermine 
the qualitative and quantitative composition of 
the bird and animal species inhabiting the water 
bodies. There are nesting grounds for hundreds 
of graylag geese and many duck species, such as 
the coot, the grebes, sea gulls, snipes, marsh sea 
gulls and etc. The lakes with fl oating  vegetation 
are favorable for nesting of rather rare feathered 
representatives: the mute swan, the graylag goose 
and others. Of small mammals there are usually 
the European water vole, the ermine and rarely ко-
лонок. Of amphibians the moor frog, the common 
spadefoot and the European green toad are broadly 
distributed (Формозов, 1969, p.263-264).
The mentioned natural conditions of North 
Kazakhstan with its landscape, climate, fauna 
and  fl ora allowed people settling in the area on 
the turn of Pleistocene and Holocene already. A 
hydronetwork, but as well as a meridian direction 
of the main rivers fl ow – the Ishim, the Tobol, the 
Irtysh was favorable for that (pic. 1). In particular, 
the Ishim, crossing three regions of North 
Kazakhstan in meridian direction, as if connects 
different orthographic areas of the partially wooded 
steppe and the steppe creating a specifi c ecological 
hybrid. The primitive population actively used the 
broad valley of the Ishim favorable for living. The 
evidence of that is the archeological map of the 
Stone Age monuments of Priishimye (over 200 
points). The stop, the settlements and the shops 
are concentrated as a rule in certain microregions, 
which are the most suitable for living of primitive 
people, for their production and economic activity.
Modern landscape non-glacier zones with 
their  fl ora and fauna, according to the data of 
specialists – geologists and geographers were 
formed as far back as Pleistocene (Природное 
районирование Северного Казахстана, 1970, p. 
252; Костенко, 1963, p. 76). It is also well-known 
that the climate during the Holocene period was 
not stable. In turn that made impact on physical-
and-geographical conditions of the post-glacier 
period (Кассин, 1947, p. 198; Волков, 1971, 
p. 73). Also anthropogenic factor made certain 
impact on the changing of the environment (Бу-
дыко, 1971, p. 237). At the end of the Stone Age 
complicated relations between the nature and the 
people based on actively developing production 
forces of the society were established. That time 
was characterized not only by traditional processes 
of adaption of people to the environment, but 
also by certain independence reached by them, 
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210
which was demonstrated by signifi cant variability 
of lifestyle of primitive people groups, their 
economic and production activity. Along with that 
the reconstruction of Paleo-landscape and Paleo-
climatic situation in the epoch of Holocene is of 
great importance for the solution of the many 
archeological issues related to Mesolith-Neolith 
(Герасимов, Величко, 1974, p. 231-234).
The Paleo-climatic scale for the Holocene 
period was developed by Blittom, and then by 
Sernander at the end of XIX century already. 
Though some foreign and Soviet scientists 
were against this scheme, it may be considered 
generally recognized (Нейштадт, 1969, p. 5-12, 
Хотинский, 1977, p. 105). At present, a number 
of Paleo-climatic developments are proposed for 
the territory of the country. The most recognized 
of them in the archeological literature are the 
works of M. I. Neyshtadt (Нейштадт,  Гуделис, 
1961, p. 5-44), I. P. Gerasimov (Герасимов, 
1961, p. 224-231), A. V. Shnitnikov (Шнитников, 
1949, p. 65-78; Шнитников, 1957, p.221), N. A. 
Hotinskiy (Хотинский, 1968, 112 p.). All authors 
emphasize the specifi c impact of the climate on 
changing of other natural factors. Also, certain 
impact was made by the climate on the topography 
of the monuments and the economic activity of the 
primitive population.
O. N. Bader and others scientists underlined 
the relationship between the topography of the 
monuments and Paleo-geographical situation (Ба-
дер, 1950, p.140-150)
For the last 20 years archeologists have 
been broadly using the data of Paleography and 
their own fi eld observations for reconstruction of 
the environment and clarifi cation of the time of 
existence of certain archeological cultures: O. N. 
Bader (Бадер, 1974, p. 225-230), D. A. Krainev 
(Крайнов,  Хотинский, 1974, p. 42-68), P. M. 
Dolukhanov (Долуханов , 1979, p. 54), A. X. 
Halikov (Халиков , 1969, p. 232) and others - for 
European part of the USSR; N. Matyushin (Ма-
тюшин, 1976, p. 123), V. M. Raushenbah (Рау-
шенбах, 1966, p. 16-28), L. Y. Krizhevskaya 
(Крижевская, 1968, p. 10; Крижевская, 1975, p. 
161-179; Крижевская, 1978, p. 49-52) - for Ural; 
V. F. Starkov (Старков, 1970, p. 3-11, Старков, 
1980, p. 90-92) - for Zauralye; M. F. Kosarev (Ко-
сарев, 1971, p. 39-51; Косарев, 1973, p.63-65) - 
for the Western Siberia; A. V. Vinogradov (Вино-
градов, Мамедов, 1975, p. 123) - for Central Asia 
and etc.
The collation of the data on paleography 
of various regions of the specifi ed vast Eurasian 
area gives rise to certain different understanding, 
probably, due to local climatic and landscape 
particularities. Besides, there are certain general 
trends related to climate change. In particular, 
this concerns the fact of the warming on the Earth 
at the end of Pleistocene that led to considerable 
aridity in mid-latitude areas of the country in the 
boreal period. The beginning of the Atlantic period 
is characterized by moistening conditions around 
the world and in the sub-boreal epoch the climate 
becomes dry again. Certain moistening is noted 
in the Sub-Atlantic period approximately in the 
beginning of I millennium BC.
At a general trend related to climate change 
and, probably, to landscape, the microsituations, 
which could, for instance, decrease moistening or, 
on the contrary, increase its impact, should be taken 
into account. To justify archeologically the changes 
of Paleo-climatic and Paleo-graphical situation 
serial material as well as thorough selection of 
information is required. But even in this case we 
are speaking about the trends only. For instance, 
a fact on use of particularities of microlandscapes 
and accordingly the microclimate in modern 
agriculture may be provided. When defi ning  the 
dates of sowing, harvesting and the amount of 
fertilizers to be applied, the particularity of one 
or another area including several components – 
the type of the relief (a watershed or a valley), 
presence of woods, distance from a hydronetwork 
and others should be taken into account (Агрокли-
матический  справочник  по  Северо-Казахстан-
ской области, 1958, p. 65).
In the period of works for four years in 
Teliman microregion we witnessed the changing 
of the Ishim River valley scenery. In 1975-1977 
the grasses in the valley of up to 10 km wide with 
a furcated network of former riverbeds and water 
meadows were very low. Many former riverbeds 
and streams dried out very quickly during two-
three weeks, particularly, in July. Springs and small 
water bodies on the former coast disappeared. 
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In the fl ood plain there were paths of saiga - a 
typical representative of the hot steppe. Since the 
grass vegetation was low, the coast lines were 
well observed that made it easier to search for and 
defi ne archeological monument.
The situation changed completely in 
springtime and summer 1978. Literally, the 
whole valley had become moistened. The former 
riverbeds, which dried previously, had become 
fi lled with water and formed a lace of blue 
bands. The grasses, particularly, growing along 
the former riverbeds, reached human heights. It 
became diffi cult for us to fi nd the monument sites, 
where we had worked for two-three seasons. It 
was interesting that saiga, according to the words 
of rangers, had left for the steppe at a distance of 
150-200 km. At the same time we didn’t notice 
any changes in the climate. Probably, changes in 
the degree of moistening of small micreregion in 
contrast with the surrounding steppe occurred as 
a result of combination of certain factors. Could 
a similar ecological situation in Neolith make 
impact on topography nature of monuments, as 
well as on the economic activity of ancient people? 
Obviously, it could. This fact urges us to consider 
different hypsometric levels of stops on the terraces 
not only through a prism of general climate change 
to moistening or aridity, but also to think of other 
possible reasons of local ecological signifi cance, 
as well as to take into account the factors of 
production, functional nature of monuments.
Unfortunately, the number of Paleo-
geographical works on Holocene on the territory 
of North Kazakhstan is very small, and those 
ones that have been done, are not quite suitable 
in relation to application of archeological data. 
For instance, V. A. Nikolayev published the article 
«Antropogenic Stage in the History of the Steppe 
Western Siberia and Kazakhstan». In it, the author 
highlights various stages of human impact on the 
environment (Николаев, 1977, p. 17-23). Along 
with that the climate of various Holocene epochs is 
reconstructed. V. A. Nikolaev considers numerous 
Kelteminar stops distributed along ancient coast 
lines from the partially wooded steppe of the 
Western Siberia to Turan deserts to be one of the 
evidences of the existence of Aral transgression in 
the end of III millennium BC, moreover he relates 
them to Eneolith period. To be exact, the author 
does not defi ne the periods by himself, but uses the 
data of the 50s, which currently has been revised. 
At present, the Kelteminar culture is not related 
to Eneolith, it is related to Neolith. Also, the 
boundary of this culture, which is not beyond the 
Horesm oasis, currently has been defi ned  rather 
exactly. Finally, the dating of Kelteminar culture 
have been revised and shifted to earlier times. The 
value of this article is that V. A. Nikolaev relates 
the transgression of Arala and the dating of stops in 
the Western, Central Kazakhstan and Central Asia 
to considerable moistening. Since the majority 
of stops are dated by different periods - from 
Mesolith to Eneolith, it would be more logical 
to suppose, at least, two periods of moistening 
related to the dating of these stops. The fi rst one 
is - in the beginning of the Atlantic period (VI-V 
millenniums BC) and the second period is - at the 
end of it (III millennium BC) that corresponds to 
modern data of paleographers.
Soil scientists had a specifi c approach to the 
solution of paleography issues. So, I. V. Ivanov 
and his group from the Institute of Soil Science 
of the AS USSR jointly with archeologists from 
North Kazakhstan and Ural (G. B. Zdanovich and 
others) studied soils buried under burial mound 
of the Bbronze Age and the Iron Age, located in 
open watershed areas (Иванов, 1984, p.15) The 
method is based on comparison of modern soils 
and the soils, as if conserved under artifi cial soil 
constructions. The most important thing for soil 
scientists is identifi cation of dating of buried soil, 
which archeologists identify through studying of 
burial complexes. The origin and biochemical 
changes of soil depend, fi rst of all, on the climate.
Certain information on the climate in 
Holocene one may receive from hydrologists 
studying numerous lakes in North Kazakhstan and 
its surrounding areas. The cyclic nature of water 
bodies’ level rise and fall, as well as the degree 
of their salinity becomes known. Many scientists 
defi ne the cycles of climate variability within the 
century that makes impact on specifi ed processes 
(Косарев, 1979, p. 63-65).
Methodology and methods of monument 
study. 
To begin dealing with mass systematic 
studies of the Stone Age monuments in North 
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