Практикум по культуре речевого общения (Аспект «Анализ текста»)
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| part of speech.
These three factors are conventionally referred to as, ‘meaning’; ‘form’ and ‘function’. Words on the upper level of classification are divided into notional and functional, which reflects their division in the earlier grammatical tradition into changeable and unchangeable. To the notional parts of speech of the English language belong the noun; the adjective; the numeral; the pronoun; the verb; the adverb.
the categorial meaning of form function the noun
substance (‗thingness‘); number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation in the sentence (subject, object, substantival predicative); prepositional connections; modification by
an adjective. the adjective property (qualitative and relative) the degrees of comparison (for qualitative adjectives); the specific suffixal forms of derivation in the sentence (attribute to a
adjectival predicative).
number (cardinal and ordinal); the narrow set of simple numerals; the specific forms of composition for compound numerals; the specific suffixal forms of derivation for ordinal numerals; the functions of numerical attribute and numerical substantive
indication
the narrow sets of various status with the corresponding formal properties of categorial changeability and
word- building the substantival and adjectival functions for different sets.
the verb process (presented in the two upper series of
forms, respectively, as finite process and
non- finite process person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood; the opposition of the finite and non-finite forms the function of the finite predicate for the finite verb; the mixed verbal – other than verbal functions for the non-finite verb the
secondary the forms of the degrees of the
functions of
Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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the adverb property, i.e. the
property of process or another property comparison for
qualitative adverbs; the specific suffixal forms of derivation various
adverbial modifiers.
non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence. These are functional parts of speech‘. Only unchangeable words are traditionally treated under the heading of functional parts of speech. They are simply presented by the list, since the number of these words is limited, so that they needn‘t be identified on any general, operational scheme. To the basic operational functional series of words in English belong the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection. The article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions. The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of substantive referents. The conjunction expresses connections of phenomena. The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. The modal word expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts. Here belong the functional words of probability (probably; perhaps; etc.), of qualitative evaluation (fortunately; unfortunately; luckily; etc.) and also of affirmation and negation. The interjection is a signal of emotions.
1.
What basis are parts of speech discriminated on? What do these criteria mean? 2.
What are notional parts of speech? What are functional parts of speech? Which of them are changeable? Which are unchangeable? 3.
Part of speech the categorial meaning form
function The noun
The adjective
The numeral
The pronoun
The verb
The adverb
The conjunction The particle
The modal word The interjection
Handout # 3 (Lessons 3-4) The sentence is a unity of several nominal groups. Nominal groups can be called the noun phrase or noun group in various sources. Unless a noun is used in a generalizing sense, a noun group consists of at least the following elements: a determiner and a noun. A determiner is one of the following: an article (the, a, an, some, any), a quantifier (no, few, a few, many, etc.), a possessive (my, your, whose, the man's, etc.), a demonstrative (this, that, these, those), a numeral (one, two, three etc.) or a question word (which, whose, how many, etc.). A noun group can also contain one or more modifiers; a modifier is an adjective, an adjectival phrase, a secondary noun (they usually come before the head noun), a prepositional phrase or a relative clause (they follow the head noun). They perform the function of attributes. Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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A nominal group starts with a functional word. The functional words are: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, or parts of speech used instead of articles: possessive pronouns (my, his, her, its, our, your, their), demonstrative pronouns (this, these, that, those), indefinite pronouns (any, some, each, every), the negative particle (no), cardinals (one, two, three, four, etc.). The end of the group of this kind is usually (1) before the functional words; starting the next nominal group; (2) before the predicate; (3) before personal pronouns in the nominative case; (4) before Participle I and Participle II, if these participles are not in the position between the functional word and the noun; (5) before conjunctions; (6) before the infinitive with the particle ―to‖ (marked infinitive), (7) after plural nouns. The last word in the nominal group is the main one, and usually it is a noun, but sometimes it can be a pronoun too. The first nominal group that does not start with a preposition is the subject of the sentence. The second nominal group that does not start with a preposition is the direct object. The predicate follows the subject and comes before the direct object. The place of the adverbial modifier is either in the beginning of the sentence, or in the end of it, and if it is in the unusual position, that is in the middle of a sentence, then it is enclosed in commas.
What is a nominal group? What other terms can be used in other sources? 2. What does a nominal group consist of? What is a determiner? What is a modifier? What function does it perform?
What are the boundaries of nominal groups? Which word is the main one? What part of speech can that be?
What is the usual word order of the English sentence? 5. Which group of words is the subject of the sentence? 6. Which group of words is the object of the sentence? 7. What is the position of the predicate?
Twain) (2) When, almost immediately, the telephone rang inside and the butler left the porch Daisy seized upon the momentary interruption and leaned toward me. (F.S. Fitzgerald) (3) This library houses rare books. (4) The office complex can house 25,000 people. (5) We object to the dirt that television projects into homes. (6) He was indignant at being the object of suspicion. (7) They usually present books to him. (8) Exercises of this kind present some difficulties. Exercise 2. Divide the following sentences into nominal groups. Find the subject, the predicate, the direct object. 1.
This table lists the analyses made before 2000. 2.
Every year we register new scientific achievements. 3.
In granite we may distinguish the transparent grains of quartz of irregular form. 4.
These little beasts form a most valuable accession to the museum. 5.
The main building houses the nuclear reactor, heat exchanger, circulation pump and other equipment for operating reactor and for scientific and technical research. 6.
obvious. 7.
It will take not less than four years, when the dam is built, to accumulate the necessary amount of water. 8.
and strength of peace movement. 9.
I do not deny that the question is of great importance. Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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10.
The strict rule is that the clothes of the weavers strictly conform to the approved standard. Handout #5 (Lessons 5-8) The basic predicative meanings of the typical English sentence are expressed by the finite verb which is immediately connected with the subject of the sentence. This predicative connection is commonly referred to as the ‗predicative line‘ of the sentence. The simple sentence is a sentence in which only one predicative line is expressed. The composite sentence is a sentence in which more than one predicative line is expressed.
The compound sentence is derived from two or more base sentences which are connected on the principle of coordination either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically (without the help of coordinative connectors). The main coordinating conjunctions, both simple and discontinuous, are: and, but, or, nor, neither, for, either ... or, neither ... nor, etc. The main adverbial coordinators are: then, yet, so, thus, consequently, nevertheless, however, etc. The complex sentence is built up on the principle of subordination. It consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause is joined to the principle clause either by a subordinating connector, or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically (бессоюзные). The functions of subordinate clauses are similar to those of the parts of a simple sentence. Accordingly, subordinate clauses are classed as subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses. The function of a subordinate clause depends on its position in the sentence. 1.
clause. The subject clause precedes the predicate of the principle clause. They are not separated by a comma. They end before the second predicate in the complex sentence, which is the predicate to the subject clause. They are introduced by (A) conjunctions: that, whether,
2.
Subordinate predicative clauses have the function of a predicative. The predicative clause follows the link verb, usually to be, which is in the principle clause. They are not separated by a comma. They are introduced by (A) conjunctions: that, whether, if, as, as if; (B) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which; (C) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. E.g. This was why he did it. Predicative and subject clauses can be often translated with the help of correlative particle and correlative conjunction то, which should be placed before the conjunction. 3.
clause or may refer to same verbals in the function of their objects. The object clause follows either the predicate or verbal. They are not separated by a comma. They are introduced by (A) conjunctions: that, whether, if, lest; (B) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which; (C) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. Object clauses may be preceded by prepositions – e.g. I am sorry for what I said. They may be joined to the principal clause asyndetically: e.g. He said he was very grateful. The object clauses that are introduced by the conjunctions if and whether are indirect questions. The translation of these object clauses should be started with the predicate, and after the predicate the particle ли should be placed. E.g. I wonder if he likes his job. 4.
Attributive clauses serve as attributes to some noun or pronoun in the principle clause. The attributive clause usually follows a noun or a pronoun. They are introduced by (A) Relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that (B) Relative adverbs: where, when, why Attributive clauses are of two kinds: A.
limiting or defining relative clauses, which are used to specify which person or thing we mean. This kind of attributive clauses is not separated from the principle one by comma, and the relative pronoun (who; that) can be omitted if it is not the subject of the clause. The man who is wearing a hat is my uncle. The man I told you about is here. Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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B.
information about a noun, but this information is not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean. This kind of attributive clauses is separated from the principle one by comma, and the relative pronoun cannot be omitted. My uncle, who is 61, is a scientist. 5.
Adverbial clauses refer to a verb, an adjective or an adverb of the principle clause in the function of an adverbial modifier. They are usually used either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. If they stand in the unusual position, for example in the middle of the sentence, they are separated by two commas, at the beginning and at the end of them. They are connected with the principle clause by means of conjunctions: when, after, because, if, as if, than, that, etc. E.g. Before dinner was ready, we went for a walk. If I had known that, I would be here now. (adverbial clause of condition)
1. How are the basic predicative meanings of the typical English sentence expressed by? 2. What is the simple sentence? 3. What‘s the difference between simple and composite sentence? 4. What does a clause mean? 5. What principle is a compound sentence built on? 6. What principle is a complex sentence built on? 7. How can subordinate clauses be joined to the principle one? 8. What are the two bases of classification are there? 9. How are subordinate clauses to be classed according to functional principle? a)
b)
Predicative clauses c)
Object clauses d)
Attributive clauses e)
Adverbial clauses Handout #6 (Outclass work, Lessons 5-8) Exercise 1. Determine the type of clause used in each sentence. (1) What I need is a long holiday. (2) I said I believed my uncle Abner Moore would take care of me, and so that was why I struck out for this town of Goshen. (3) I got so full of it I didn't notice how long I was staying till the old man hollered and asked me whether I was asleep or drownded. (4) ―Love, it is notorious that pine is the least nutritious wood that a child can eat.‖ (5) Again at eight o'clock, when the dark lanes of the Forties were five deep with throbbing taxi cabs, bound for the theatre district, I felt a sinking in my heart. (6) He glanced at Lord Hertford, who gave him a sign - but he failed to understand that also. (7) "Somebody told me they thought he killed a man once." (8) He had a gun which he had stole, I reckon, and we fished and hunted, and that was what we lived on. (9) What I did yesterday is none of your business. (10) I said, without intent to hurt, but with heedless choice of words, that I could not see that we had been living such an abandoned life.
1.
This table lists the analyses made before 2000. 2.
Every year we register new scientific achievements. 3.
In granite we may distinguish the transparent grains of quartz of irregular form. 4.
These little beasts form a most valuable accession to the museum. 5.
The main building houses the nuclear reactor, heat exchanger, circulation pump and other equipment for operating reactor and for scientific and technical research. Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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6.
That engineers should be conversant with the capabilities and limitations of explosives is obvious. 7.
It will take not less than four years, when the dam is built, to accumulate the necessary amount of water. 8.
and strength of peace movement. 9.
I do not deny that the question is of great importance. 10.
The strict rule is that the clothes of the weavers strictly conform to the approved standard. Handout #7 (lessons 9-10) The literary communication, most often (but not always) materialized in the written form, is not homogeneous, and proceeding from its function (purpose) we speak of different functional
and quality change in the course of their development. At present most scholars differentiate such functional styles: scientific, official, publicist, newspaper, belles-lettres.
is the abundance of terms denoting objects, phenomena and processes characteristic of some particular field of science and technique. Scientific style is also known for its precision, clarity and logical cohesion which is responsible for the repeated use of such cliches as: ―Proceeding from...‖; ―As it was said above...‖; ―In connection with..‖ and other lexico-syntactical forms emphasizing the logical connection and interdependence of consecutive parts of the discourse. Official style, or the style of official documents, is the most conservative one. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring and uses syntactical constructions and words long known as archaic and not observed anywhere else. Addressing documents and official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and considerations leading to the subject of the document (letter) — all this is strictly regulated both lexically and syntactically. All emotiveness and subjective modality are completely banned out of this style. Publicist style is a perfect example of the historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In ancient Greece, e.g., it was practiced mainly in its oral form and was best known as oratoric style, within which views and sentiments of the addresser (orator) found their expression. Nowadays political, ideological, ethical, social beliefs and statements of the addresser are prevailingly expressed in the written form, which was labelled publicist in accordance with the name of the corresponding genre and its practitioners. Publicist style is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader and shaping his views, in accordance with the argumentation of the author. Correspondingly, we find in publicist style a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things, and a strong subjectivity reflecting the author‘s personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject.
conclude though that everything published in a newspaper should be referred to the newspaper style. The paper contains vastly varying materials, some of them being publicist essays, some — feature articles, some — scientific reviews, some — official stock-exchange accounts etc., so that a daily (weekly) newspaper also offers a variety of styles. When we mention ―newspaper style‖, we mean informative materials, characteristic of newspaper only and not found in other publications. To attract the reader‘s attention to the news, special graphical means are used. British and American papers are notorious for the change of type, specific headlines, space ordering, etc. We find here a large proportion of dates and personal names of countries, territories, institutions, individuals. To achieve the effect of objectivity and impartiality in rendering some fact or event, most of the newspaper information is published anonymously, without the name of the newsman who supplied it, with little or no subjective modality. But the Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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position and attitude of the paper, nonetheless, become clear from the choice not only of the subject-matter but also of the words denoting international or domestic issues. Belles-lettres style, or the style of imaginative literature may be called the richest register of communication: besides its own language means which are not used in any other sphere of communication, belles-lettres style makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the belles- lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically. The form becomes meaningful and carries additional information as you must have seen from previous chapters. Boundless possibilities of expressing one‘s thoughts and feelings make the belles-lettres style a highly attractive field of research for a linguist. Speaking of belles-lettres style most scholars almost automatically refer to it prose works, regarding poetry the domain of a special poetic style. Viewed diachronically this opinion does not seem controversial, for poems of previous centuries, indeed, adhered to a very specific vocabulary and its ordering. But poetry of the twentieth century does not show much difference from prose vocabulary, its subjects are no more limited to several specific ―poetic‖ fields but widely cover practically all spheres of existence of contemporary man. So it is hardly relevant to speak of a separate poetic style in reference to contemporary literature.
What functional styles are there? 2. What are the basic features of the scientific style? 3. What are the basic features of official style? 4. What are the basic features of publicist style? 5. What are the basic features of newspaper style? 6. What are the basic features of belles-lettres style?
the first business of criticism, at least some of the time, should be to judge works of literature (or painting or even music) on grounds of the production‘s moral worth. By ―moral‖ I do not mean some such timid evasion as ―not too blatantly immoral‖. It is not enough to say, with the support of mountains of documentation from sociologists, psychiatrists, and the New York City Police Department, that television is a bad influence when it actively encourages pouring gasoline on people and setting fire to them. On the contrary, television — or any other more or less artistic medium — is good (as opposed to pernicious or vacuous) only when it has a clear positive moral effect, presenting valid models for imitation, eternal verities worth keeping in mind, and a benevolent vision of the possible which can inspire and incite human beings towards virtue, towards life affirmation as opposed to destruction or indifference. This obviously does not mean that art should hold up cheap or cornball models of behaviour, though even those do more good in the short run than does, say, an attractive bad model like the quick-witted cynic so endlessly celebrated in light-hearted films about voluptuous women and international intrigue. In the long run, of course, cornball morality leads to rebellion and the loss of faith. (J.G.)
In tagmemics we make a crucial theoretical difference between the grammatical hierarchy and the referential one. In a normal instance of reporting a single event in time, the two are potentially isomorphic with coterminous borders. But when simultaneous, must‘be sequenced in the report. In some cases, a chronological or logical sequence can in English be partially or completely changed in presentational order (e.g. told backwards); when this is done, Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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the referential structure of the tale is unaffected, but the grammatical structure of the telling is radically altered. Grammatical order is necessarily linear (since words come out of the mouth one at a time), but referential order is at least potentially simultaneous. Describing a static situation presents problems parallel to those of presenting an event involving change or movement. Both static and dynamic events are made linear in grammatical presentation even if the items or events are, referentially speaking, simultaneous in space or time (K.Pk.)
TOBACCO plants could be the key to allowing chemotherapy patients to keep their hair, writes Roger Dobson. Biotechnologists have succeeded in getting the transgenic plants to grow an antibody that neutralises the hair-loss effects of the toxic chemicals used in cancer-fighting chemotherapy. When a solution of the antibodies is rubbed into the hair and scalp before anti-cancer treatment begins, it protects and preserves the hair follicles from the aggressive toxins in the drug treatment. ( S. T.) 4.
Professor W.H. Leeman 79 Rigby Drive London
Dorset, Merseyside 10th March 1998 Dear Sir! Contributed papers accepted for the Conference will be presented in oral sessions or in poster sessions, each type of presentation being considered of equal importance for the success of the conference. The choice between the one or the other way of presentation will be made by the Programme Committee. The first is a ten-minute talk in a conventional session, followed by a poster presentation in a poster area. In the poster period (about two hours) authors will post visual material about their work on a designated board and will be prepared to present details and answer questions relating to their paper. The second mode of presentation is the conventional format of twenty-minute talks without poster periods. This will be used for some sessions, particularly those for which public discussion is especially important or for which there is a large well-defined audience. Sincerely T. W. Thomas, Chairman.
. ...and the wineshops open at night and the castanets and the night we missed the boat at Algeciras the watchman going about with his lamp and О that awful deepdown torrent О and the sea crimson sometimes like fire and the glorious sunsets and the figtrees in the Alameda gardens yes and all the queer little streets and pink and blue and yellow houses and the rosegardens and the jessamine and geraniums and cactuses and Gibraltar as a girl where I was a flower of the mountains yes when I put the rose in my hair like the Andalusian girls used or shall I wear a red yes how he kissed me under the Moorish wall and I thought well as well him as another and then I asked him with my eyes to ask again yes and then he asked me would I yes to say yes my mountain flower and first I put my arms around him yes and drew him down to me yes.... (J.J.) 6
It is she, in association with whom, saving that she has been for years a main fibre of the roof of his dignity and pride, he has never had a selfish thought. It is she, whom he has loved, admired, honoured and set up for the world to respect. It is she, who, at the core of all the constrained formalities and conventionalities of his life, has been a stock of living tenderness and love. (D.) Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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Handout #9 (Lessons 10-22) Phono-graphical level Graphons: violation of the graphical shape of a word is used to reflect its authentic pronunciation. It proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker‘s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. It can show the physical defects of the speaker - stuttering, stumbling, lisping, etc. Graphon, thus individualizing the character‘s speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act. Some forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue: ―gimme‖ (give me), ―lemme‖ (let me), ―gonna‖ (going to), ―gotta‖ (got to), ―coupla‖ (couple of), ―mighta‖ (might have), ―willya‖ (will you), etc. Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of pronunciation, but are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words. According to the frequency of usage, variability of functions, the first place among graphical means of foregrounding is occupied by italics. Besides italicizing words to add to their logical or emotive significance, separate syllables and morphemes may also be emphasized by italics. Intensity of speech (often commands) is transmitted through the multiplication of a grapheme (e.g. Alllll aborrrrrd) or capitalization of the word. (e.g. Help. Help. HELP.) Hyphenation of a word suggests the rhymed or clipped manner in which it is uttered. (e.g. grinning like a chim-pan-zee) Lines – are steps in verse lines. Onomatopoeia is a word imitating a sound. The pronunciation of the word imitates a sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it‘s often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting by the use of onomatopoeia. E.g.: ‗The lion roared.‘ ‗The steaks sizzled in the pan.‘ ‗The bomb went off with a bang‘. Poetry abounds in some specific types of sound-instrumenting, some of them are:
repeated in two neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis. E.g.: ‗for the greater good of‘ ... ‗safety and security‘ ‗share a continent but not a country‘ Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the consonants themselves.
with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within stressed syllables of neighbouring words. E.g.: fertile – birth; fate and lake Effect: musical Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds especially at the end of neighbouring words. E.g.: strength - earth – birth Summing up, the mentioned above stylistic devices are used for recreating the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act - all aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author‘s viewpoint
The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation; two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata respectively. Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. Составитель: и.о. доц. Гринько А.В. КГУ им. И. Арабаева, институт Лингвистики, кафедра Лингвистики
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Though there is no immediate correlation between the written and the oral forms of speech on one hand, and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet, for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries, certain passages of memoirs, etc.), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication. Consequently, taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse, simulating (copying) everyday oral communication - i.e., in the dialogue (or interior monologue)in a prose work. When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning. More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral. As our famous philologist L.V. Shcherba once said - a stylistically coloured word is like a drop of paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it. Some of the lexical stylistic devices are:
comparison between two things which are basically quite different without using the words like or as. E.g.: ―Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food‖. (Henry Ward Beecher)
raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations.‖ Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its members. When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a group of them, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged) metaphor. The effect of metaphors is that it aims to create imagery so that we may visualize the connection between two objects or things when they are not. Personification a kind of metaphor in which animals, plants, inanimate objects or abstract ideas are represented as if they were human beings and possessed human qualities (behaviour, feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively. E.g.: Justice is blind. Necessity is the mother of invention. Metonymy is a figurative expression closely associated with the subject. Metonymy (unlike metaphor) uses figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or background. The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (see synecdoche). E.g.: The White House declared … (White House = US government / President) The land belongs to the crown. (crown = king / queen / royal family / monarchy). Empty pockets never held anyone back. Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that. (Norman Vincent Peale) (empty pockets = poverty; empty heads = ignorance / dullness / density; empty hearts = unkindness / coldness) The general effect of metonymy is to bring before the mind a definite image, and thus to impart a graphic quality to the style. Synecdoche
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