Types of Projects
Though similar in many ways, project based learning can take on diverse
configurations. The most suitable format for a given context depends on a variety of
factors including curricular objectives, course expectations, students' proficiency
levels, student interests, time constraints, and availability of materials. A review of
different types of projects based on practical use in English language instruction at
KBTU will demonstrate the scope, versatility, and adaptability of project work.
Projects can be linked to real-world concerns (for example, when students
interview successful people), or to simulated real-world issues (for example, when
students stage a debate on the pros and cons of censorship as part of a content-
based unit on censorship). They can also be tied to student interests, with or
without real-world significance (for example, when they explore the topics of their
own concern).
Projects can also differ in data collection techniques and sources of information
depending on the type of a project: Research projects necessitate the gathering of
information through library research rather than people. Business-like projects
require communication with individuals (or businesses). WebQuest projects also
necessitate gathering of information from web resources. While Success Story
projects entail creating a survey instrument and then collecting and analyzing data
from “informants”.
Projects may also differ in the ways that information is "reported" as part of a
culminating activity. Production projects involve the creation of bulletin board
displays, videos, radio programs, poster sessions, written reports, photo essays,
brochures, travel itineraries, and so forth. Performance projects can take shape as
staged debates, oral presentations, theatrical performances, food fairs, or fashion
shows.
18
KazTEA
2015
Projects can be carried out intensively over a short period of time or extended over
a few weeks, or a full semester. They can be completed by students individually,
in small groups, or as a class; and they can take place entirely within the confines
of the classroom or can extend beyond the walls of the classroom into the
community or with others via different forms of correspondence.
Integrating project based learning into the language classroom: Success Story
Project
Level and duration: Intermediate and upwards, 1 semester.
Project goal: The project aims to stimulate Business English language learning
through real world exploration method.
Project concept: Students endeavor to build up profiles of local businesses or
entrepreneurs and identify their success factors. They explore the local market
opportunities through meetings and interviews with business people. This project
helps students understand how to choose a relevant occupation, start and build their
professional career in the local market, and acquire relevant knowledge and skills.
Students are especially excited when it comes to making appointments via telephones
in English with real, important business people, working out the real interview
questions and conducting the interview, which is followed by video and audio-
recording.
Stages:
Stage 1. Preparation. After a brainstorming session the group splits into teams
to launch sub projects. Teams make a preliminary search not only through the
Internet and library resources but also by exploring their local environment including
families, acquaintances, and local companies in order to identify the object of study.
At this stage the teams should establish contact with the person/company in view,
make an appointment with them over the phone or e-mail, or directly through a
company reception for an interview no earlier than in 2-3 weeks. They should make
sure they agree the date, time, duration and place of the event with the person in view
and give priority in decision making to the business person. The team should also
make it clear that the interview is to be held in English and it should be either audio
or video recorded and photographs could be a good idea to collect the project
portfolio. Meanwhile students should plan the details of the interview, make a list of
the questions to build their success story and consider the technical implications of
the interview. Students should also create a personal profile of the entrepreneur with
an account of most important data which may include his/her educational
background, present status, some important life events that have added much to the
success. The teams are advised to consult the instructor during the office hours on the
interview questions selected.
Stage 2. Interviewing and paper writing. The teams conduct interviews as
agreed and in accordance with the procedure they have worked out. After the
interview the students have to systematize the project portfolio, summarize the
collected information, evaluate and select the relevant information and build up a
success story of the interviewed person. Writing the success story is the most
19
KazTEA
2015
challenging part for the students. What makes this process more dynamic is the pre-
set classroom study of the content and structure of the success stories from the
English course book “Market Leader” Upper-Intermediate Business English (Cotton,
Falvey, Kent, 2007). Students practice writing short success stories in teams in class
setting or during office hours by using short profiles from the course book or other
sources. In this stage the teacher’s role is critical. A lot of time should be spent with
each student or a team of story writers in order to help students develop their story
content, structure and improve their analytical and creative business writing styles.
The structure of the story itself is up to the students, although the teacher
recommends some samples, either in the form of a structured report or a structured
story.
Stage 3. Presentation. The project is finalized by a formal presentation of the
outcomes of the team projects to the peers and the teacher. The group might decide to
design a group brochure to put all the collected stories together.
Evaluation criteria are very similar to the ones in other types of projects but the
use of target business vocabulary and the formal layout of the report can be added as
important. The example of project evaluation parameters might be as follows:
Project portfolio
Project paper (report):
Project presentation
Completeness
Information value
Individual input
Meeting deadlines
Team work
Analytical writing skills
Coverage/content
Use of language
Design
Meeting deadline
Content value
Logicalconsistency/structure
Use of language
Delivery/interaction with audience
Use of visual aids
Practical tips for teachers
Though project tasks are assumed to be a student independent type of learning
aimed at developing their autonomy and self-study skills, the teacher’s role in guiding
students is great. The success of the PBL largely depends on the teacher’s concern
and involvement with every important stage of the project activities the students go
through. There are several important things the English language instructors should
take into an account when dealing with PBL.
First of all, the students are capable of accomplishing the project tasks
successfully only if they understand the project goals, tasks, its outcomes and how
their work is to be assessed. Therefore, it is strongly advised to provide written types
of guidelines with clear goals, instructions and transparent assessment criteria.
The second important tip is related to students’ motivation. They would be more
enthusiastic about the project idea if they see it as added value to their career
aspirations. It is highly recommended for the instructors to provide positive
orientation to students by defining clearly the project real-life implications for the
learners’ professional development. Examples could relate to the students’ exposure
to the real business world challenges, research–related activities in companies,
acquaintance with their business activities and the relevant skills or competencies the
project activities are to facilitate to be used in practice. To raise motivation the
20
KazTEA
2015
instructors ought to make sure the students are aware of the expected level of their
knowledge, skills and abilities they are to exhibit at the final stage of project-based
learning.
It is important to take into account the issue of disadvantaged students which
usually arises at the initial stage of the project launch when several teams or smaller
groups are formed to carry out a project task together. More advanced students tend
to make up a team with those who are the same competence level, hence the less
advanced ones are usually left behind. The instructor must make sure the teams are
evenly formed in terms of the language level and pace of learning and look for the
ways to provide stimulating environment for every student to shine.
Another critical issue is provision of scaffold instruction by the instructors,
which implies provision of learning resources and technology access for the students.
It is necessary to preview the availability of required literature, databases, catalogues
and periodicals in the library and assure that all students have free access to the
Internet and e-resources.
The role of the instructor in this type of learning can be summarised as "a
participant, a co-ordinator, when necessary a figure in the background evaluating and
monitoring the language being used."(Fried-Booth,38). But being mostly in the
background as a teacher, it is necessary for the instructor to monitor what is going on
in the terms of language use and also organisation of the project. It is necessary to
know whether the students are actually learning anything, whether they are making
progress and what aspects of their own work need improvement. This implies
keeping the students’ “project awareness” front-of-mind on daily basis. A relevant
thing is to provide project sample papers or journals to help the students have visual
demonstration of the project outcome as well as inspire students for idea generation
by giving your examples of successful experience.
Moreover, to facilitate rapport between the members of the process, the group
leaders should be requested to report what the project schedule is (including the
group brainstorming or decision-making sessions or meetings), what tasks have been
assigned and who the responsible people are, or on the reverse, what assignment has
been done by a certain date, who is involved and who is not, what problems or
challenges they have encountered. At the completion of every important stage the
project group makes an oral presentation of the project findings for the whole class
and the instructor, which might be a part of mid-term or end-of-term progress
evaluation.
Conclusion
To sum up, the project based learning cannot be the solution for all evil in
language teaching, and it cannot replace other courses completely, but it is definitely
an interesting approach to language teaching, because it can enrich language courses
by making English language classrooms more vibrant environments for learning and
collaboration and students’ self-study skills development. With the project approach
teachers can break with routine by spending a few weeks or a semester doing
something besides reading, grammar, vocabulary, etc. It is true that it means more
21
KazTEA
2015
stress and anxiety to the teacher and is time consuming. But there is a reward in
working with students on original and often very interesting pieces of work and
witness their development.
References:
1.
Koчетурова, Н. (2007). Метод проектов в обучении языку: теория и практика. Retrieved
from
http://www.itlt.edu.nstu.ru/article4.php
2.
Полат Е.С.(2000). Метод проектов на уроках иностранного языка// Иностранные языки в
школе, №№ 2, 3, 2000.
3.
Beckett, G. H. (2002). Teacher and Student Evaluations of Project-based Instruction. TESL
Canada
Journal,19(2):5266.
Retrieved
from
http://www.teslcanadajournal.ca/index.php/tesl/article/viewFile/929/748
4.
Cotton, D., Falvey, D., Kent, S. (2007). Market Leader. Upper-Intermediate Business English.
Pearson Education Ltd.
5.
Fried-Booth, Diana. 2002. Project Work. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6.
Hadgraft R. (2004).Writing Technical Reports. Retrieved from
http://www.dbweb.rmit.edu.au
7.
Haines, S. (1989). Projects for EFL Classroom: Resource Material for Teachers. Harlow:
Longman.
8.
Hedge, T. (1993). Key Concepts in ELT. ELT Journal, 47 (3): 275277. doi:10.1093/elt/
47.3.275.
9.
Janjua F (2013). Project-Based Learning in Business English Classroom. Language in India
Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow, V.13 (1) Retrieved from
http://www.languageinindia.com/jan2013/fouziapblfinal1.pdf
10.
Gibbes, M. & Carson, L. (2014) Project-Based Language Learning: An Activity Theory
Analysis. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 8(2), pp.171-189, DOI:
10.1080/17501229.2013.793689
11.
Lee, I. (2002). Project Work in Second/Foreign Language Classrooms. Retrieved from
http://www.utpjournals.com/product/cmrl/592/592_TCL_Lee.html
12.
Little, D. (2007). Language Learner Autonomy: Some Fundamental Considerations Revisited.
Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1 (1): pp. 14-29. doi:10.2167/illt 040.0.
13.
Moulton, M. ., and Holmes, V. (2000). An ESL Capstone Course: Integrating Research Tools,
Techniques, and Technology. TESOL Journal, 9 (2): pp.23-29. doi:10.1002/ j.1949-
3533.2000.tb00242.x.
14.
Sheppard, K., & F. Stoller. (1995). Guidelines for the integration of student projects in ESP
classrooms. English Teaching Forum, 33( 2).
15.
Stoller, F.L. (1997). Project Work. A Means to Promote Language Content. Forum, .35 (4).
16.
Tsiplakides, I. & Fragoulis, I. (2009). Project-Based Learning in the Teaching of English as a
Foreign Language in Greek Primary Schools: From Theory to Practice. ELT Journal 2 (3): pp.
113-119. Retrieved from
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/view/2739/3286
.
22
KazTEA
2015
UDC 81’33
TRIAL RHETORIC AS A COMPONENT OF LAWYERS’ PROFESSIONAL SKILLS
Candidate of Philological Sciences E.Sh.Nikiforova
Kostanay state university, Kostanay, Kazakhstan
Tүйін
Мақала қазақ, орыс және американдық лингвистикалық мәдениет сотының мәтінінде
риторикалық дискурстың негізгі әдістерін пайдалану зерттейді. Маңыздысы сол, тиімді
коммуникативтік ықпал ету әдістерін меңгеру құқықтық қызмет саласында кәсіби
стандарттарды қажетті компоненті болып табылады.
Резюме
В статье рассматриваются вопросы использования основных риторических приёмов в
текстах судебного дискурса представителей казахской, русской и американской
лингвокультур. Особого внимания заслуживает тот факт, что владение эффективными
приёмами
коммуникативного
воздействия
является
обязательной
составляющей
профессиональной нормы в сфере правовой деятельности.
Speaking about trial rhetoric we are to consider the notion within the frames of
trial discourse, which is dealt with by a number of Western, Russian and Kazakhstani
researchers studying the functioning of a language in the sphere of law on the whole
or juridical communication in particular. For instance, P. Goodrich defines trial
discourse as methods of reading legal papers which put communicative and rhetoric
functions of law in their institutional and social and linguistic context [1, p.24]. N. D.
Golev as well considers that legal papers’ text functions within trial discourse. The
notion of a legal papers’ text is interpreted broadly as a law, witness testimony or any
written legal document [2, p.114].
We also treat the notion of trial discourse broadly including juridical texts as
well as verbal characteristics of trial participants and the communicative situation of
a trial. So, we should single out outer (place and participants) and inner contexts of
verbal communication [3, p.p. 28-29].
All trial participants as a rule assume a limited number of roles with their
peculiar characteristics due to their social standing. Professional participants are sure
to possess special knowledge and skills (such as legal competence, legal language
skills, knowledge of terminology, etc.) critical to addressing peculiar institutional
issues [4]. Non-professional trial participants do not possess the mentioned above
competence and largely rely on the advice and assistance of the professional ones.
So, taking into account that professional participants are prone to strategic
planning of their behavior, we consider their verbal behavior within the frames of our
research. We are to deal with the verbal behavior of lawyers for the prosecution and
their opposite numbers – lawyers for the defense.
Both of the mentioned above groups use the so-called special social language
as a means of social interaction [5]. It is worth mentioning that they communicate in
the presence of a “third party”: judges, jurors, etc., having to deal with dual addressee
23
KazTEA
2015
as their speech is directed both at their immediate interlocutor: their opposite number
(formal addressee) and at the “third party” (actual addressee) [6, p. 143].
During any trial session we also witness fixed change of communicative roles
because lawyers for defense and prosecution speak in turn.
All these factors influence verbal behavior of the participants defining rhetoric
techniques they use for stronger communicative impact.
Let us briefly outline some of them:
1. In trial communication we often face examination and cross-examination of
witnesses and suspects, during which lawyers ask them (especially witnesses on their
part) questions answers to which they already know. But such a procedure is critical
for transferring the information to actual addressee and emotionally influencing him
in some wayl.
E.g.” Прокурордың сұрағы: - сотталушы Сейтпенбетовтың анасын
ұрғанын өзіңіз көрдіңіз ғой?
Жауап: - иә, сол күні спирттік ішімдікті көп мөлшерде ішкендіктен
кейбір іс әрекетім есімде жоқ.
Адвокаттың сұрағы: - Сізде сотталушыға қосылып, оның анасын ұрған
жоқсызба?
Жауап: - жоқ, мен ол кісіге қол көтерген жоқпын” [7] .
Both lawyers try to ascertain the circumstances of the crime.
2. Trial communication participants also make ample use of repetitions of
certain phrases (such as you are aware that?, you will see, as you see…, Кәзіргі
кезде жасына байланысты.., Іс материалдарына қарағанда.., Хочу обратить
внимание суда на то... Напрашивается вопрос: почему...) attracting the attention
of actual addressee to the information relevant to the speaker.
E.g. «Напрашивается вопрос: почему прокуратура против этого
очевидного для всех обстоятельства? Я полагаю, ответ на этот вопрос
найти несложно» [8] .
3. Paraphrasing of an interlocutor’s statements as a means of attracting the
attention to important information is also widely used : “ Witness: … about five days
later, on March, 13, 2003, she went to her primary doctor, Dr. Washington and
according to his records she had complaints about acute pain or pain arising in the
recent past.
Prosecutor: Let me interject for a moment, if I may, Doctor. You said that
there was evidence of acute and I think you went onto pain, you went onto explain
what that means. But just so it’s clear to the members of the jury, does acute mean,
in this context, does that mean extreme pain?” [9].
4. Certain image of the accused is created through verbal means.
For instance, negative characteristics may be achieved through the combination
of lexical and grammatical techniques, the leading role in which may be played by
grammatical ones as in the following example: “ On January 14 th of this year, Dr.
Butler was a noted scientist, teacher, respected lecturer at the Health Science Center.
Been that way for many years… did, in fact, have responsibilities as an instructor,
teacher, but primarily a researcher in internal medicine”[10] .
|