Негізгі сөздер: дискурс, іскерлік дискурс, зерттеулер, прагматикалық аспект, болашақ зерттеулер
The concepts of “discourse” and “business discourse”
The most important criterion of effectiveness in business is the practical results of interrelations which are
based on speech. In order to get the practical results, it is necessary to select the functional means of speech
which strengthen pragmatic effect of the speech. So, one of the most significant issues is the question of the
way people communicate strategically in an organizational context. Linguists distinguish the limits of
business discourse. In order to understand the nature of the term “business discourse” and to consider it from
the viewpoint of our investigation, it is essential to explain the term “discourse”. As there are too many
definitions and interpretations for the term, we suggest the closest ones to our direction.
Russian linguist V.Karassik describes discourse from three viewpoints: immanent linguistic,
sociolinguistic and pragmatic. Our understanding of discourse can be interpreted by his pragmatic view on
the matter. He defines discourse as a tool which reflects the ways of communication in broader meaning [1;
189]. Here the notion of “register” by M.Halliday is worth paying attention to: the researcher distinguishes
between various characteristics of speech connected with the personality of a speaker (dialect) and the used
ways and means of communication (register). And inside the notion of register the author categorizes three
main layers: field of activity (e.g. science, religion, law), tenor - the social role relationships which obtain
between the language users in a particular situation (e.g. teacher-pupil, preacher-congregation, parent-child),
medium used (e.g. written, spoken, spoken-to-be-written, written-to-be-cited).
T.A.Van Dijk thinks that discourse is a complex unity of language forms, meanings and actions which
can be characterized by the notion of communication event[2; 113]. At the same time discourse is not limited
by the concrete language expression, that is a text, but it also includes the speaker, addressee, his/her
personal and social characteristics, and other parameters of social situation [2; 122].
Discourse analysis has been described as ‘the close study of language in use”, its importance reflected in
the epistemological position outlined earlier. However, this definition has been added by Fairclough:
‘Discourse is more than just language use: it is language use seen as a type of social practice’ and thus he
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argues that discourse analysis is not solely bound to the text but must also involve ‘analysing the relationship
between texts, processes, and social conditions, both the immediate conditions of the situational context and
the more remote conditions of institutions and social structures’[3;29].
Rapidly developing communication oriented discourse theory, which identified as priorities conceptual
cognitive and interactional analysis allowed to focus on the study of " discourse as a text, discourse as a
genre and discourse as a professional practice, discourse as a social practice", "discourse as social
interaction".
In addition, currently linguistics has reached such a high degree of complexity when terminology and
intuitively clear habitual concepts underlying become insufficiently defined, and there is an urgent need to
identify, clarify the explicit meanings of their renewed sense within the boundaries of cognitive discourse
paradigm. In such a complex epistemological situation the subject of research is not only the studied
phenomenon, but terms, concepts, statements, assumptions and relevant theories as well, viewed as special
phenomena. That is why kazakhstani linguist G.Burkitbayeva emphasizes the relations among ontological,
theoretical and metatheoretical levels of linguistic knowledge which ontologically justifies the nature of
discourse and particularly business discourse (G.Burkitbayeva) [4].
Some linguists understand business discourse as a non-fiction, non-colloquial communication as a whole.
Some of them explain it as data to business correspondence which is a rather limited and narrow
interpretation. Mostly business discourse is defined as a language of social action in business contexts.
From stylistic viewpoint, business discourse is interrelated unity of functional varieties of registers used
for business purposes. Business discourse registers include telephone communication, business talk, business
letters, documentation, contracts, meetings, presentations, negotiations, messages in mass media related to
business world. Register here stands for situational varieties of functional style.
The definition given by Bargiela-Chiappini and Nickerson is justly considered to be classical among
world business discourse researchers. It interprets business discourse as the interaction which takes place
between individuals whose main activities are located within business and whose contact is motivated by
matters relating to their respective businesses[5].
G.Burkitbayeva defines business discourse as a concrete representation of a text realized by the definite
group of people within the concrete interactive communication situation which is expressed by special
genres. Business discourse as a type of discourse is a speech interaction of people in the definite kind of
activity, i.e. their professional life. [6]. Business discourse is characterized by a limited number of
communicants and purposes of such communications, and its direction to the profitable agreement in
business matters.
Evolution of business discourse as a field of research
Looking back to the history of the development of spoken business discourse in the world linguistics, we
cannot avoid the influence of such fields and disciplines as discourse-analysis, conversational analysis, the
pragmatics of interaction, genre theory, ethnography, organizational communication, teaching foreign
languages. Especially, we should emphasize the role of such disciplines as Language for Specific Purposes,
and exactly, English for Specific Purposes, which were the original forms and a source for further evolution
of business discourse as a separate field of study. This tendency covered 1970s and the first part of 1980s.
However, at that time researchers were interested in how language was used in a specific social context.
In the 1980s the Journal of Business Communication, Business Communication Quarterly, the Journal of
Business and Technology Communication, the Management Communication Quarterly reflected the research
of business discourse in North America. However, those studies also followed some pedagogical direction,
and did not give any new offer in understanding language in corporations.
In the 1990s scientists started working on with the task of defining the field, object, methodology and
approaches in order to understand how business people use language to achieve their purposes.
Nowadays business discourse is founded on the twin notions of discourse as situated action and language
at work. And here we can see that the focus of the field of business discourse has a remote from professional
language (LSP and ESP) and its original pedagogical nature. [8].
Attention to the role of communication in bargaining (Putnam &Jones, 1982) and the strategic use of
language in negotiation (Donohue &Diez, 1985) continued to be relatively unexplored topics in the literature
on negotiation until quite recently (e.g. Candlin, Maley&Sutch, 1999). The positivist influence of cognitive
and behavioural approaches to the study of language in business settings remained dominant and language
was treated as one of the dependent variables. It was not until 1986 when Lampi’s seminal monograph on the
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discourse of negotiation was published, that studies of negotiation became language-based and began to
proliferate. The numerous publications that date from that time, as evidenced by the following list, are an
indication of how influential this shift to language-based analysis was (e.g. Ehlich&Wagner; 1999,
Firth,1995; Ulijn&Li,1995; Trosborg,1995; Jaworski,1994; Graham,1993; Holden &Ulij, 1992;
Mulholland,1991;Neumann, 1991).The most representative of these, including a variety of different
languages and settings, are the two collections both published in 1995, edited by Alan Firth, and Konrad
Ehlich and Johannes Wagner, respectively. Although authored by scholars from a variety of disciplines, the
research in these collections marks the establishment of a growing body of discourse analytic and pragmatic
studies of real-life language in the workplace.
In a similar way, Konrad Ehlich and Johannes Wagner’s collection (1995) echoes Firth’s discussion on
negotiation through the micro-analyses of authentic or simulated business interactions in Dutch, French,
German, Spanish, Danish, Japanese, British English, American English and Australian English. In their
introduction, the editors note the growing interest in business negotiation among practitioners, novices and
researchers. They also recognize that observation of the interactions and audio-recordings are essential to
sound research but that issues of access, data sensitivity and transcription detail often complicate the job of
the discourse analyst. Later on, business discourse researchers are still grappling with the same problems,
but have however much more experience in ethnographic research in corporate and institutional
environments.
In 1997 Bargiela-Chiappini and Harris’ work has also been of considerable influence on later work on the
discourse of business meetings. The 1997 study remains of interest as a ground-breaking attempt to
understand real communication involving real business people, and it provides countless examples of the
mismatch between the language taught for meetings and the language used in meetings [8].
Researcher Firth presents a range of discourse-based (contextualized) methodologies applied to
negotiation talk, such that the chapters approach negotiation not as an isolated activity, but as an activity
embedded in a variety of workplace interactions (e.g. meetings, intercultural negotiations, technical problem
solving, general practice consultations, travel agency calls, etc.).
A pioneering work on negotiation for its time, Mirjaliisa Lampi’s multilevel, micro-analytical discourse
analysis of British business negotiations (Lampi, 1986), firmly established the credentials of language-
focused research in business and international relations. The discourse features that contribute to perceived
strategy in negotiation are the focus of Lampi’s study, hence her approach concentrates on ‘levels of
discoursivity’: acts, moves, exchanges and phases, all converging to form a negotiation ‘encounter’.This
terminology will have been familiar to discourse analysts in the 1980s but the originality of the study lies in
the application of these analytical categories to the study of strategy in real business interactions [9].
In Russian business discourse history most works are devoted to define its linguistic stylistic peculiarities
(Astaffurova, 1997, Doroshenko, 1995, Malovichko, 2002)and genre varieties(Barakova 1995, Kudlayeva,
2006, Men Shu, 2005, Trofimova, 2002, Shirinkina, 2001). In this context there were investigated the
grammar and lexical peculiarities of constructions, which are used in business communication (Gaablina,
1998, Mazitova, 1993, Sharina, 2003). There were also considered some problems of its pragmatic features.
(Komleva, 2003; Koltunova, 2005).The researcher also tried to define emotional, expressive and artistic side
in business discourse (Nikipelova, 2005, Scherbakova, 2004). Some scholars tried to describe the means of
argumentation in business speech reproduction (Balandina, 2004, Biltyukov, 2006). The objects of interest
were also cognitive characteristics of business discourse (Guryeva, 2003, Shevchenko, 2003), opportunities
and
ways
of
its
meaning
segmentation
(Astafurova,
1997),
principles
of
semantics
formalization(Prischepenko, 2006), term system in business communication (Papazyan, 2007, Yudina,
1996), strategies of grasping and interpretation of professional communication texts(Malyuga, 2004).
Evolution of business discourse methodology
An important focus of practice-based research has been to describe business discourse practices and skills
need in relevant business communities, and to identify and describe salient patterns of communication in or
across different corporate contexts. The study of communication patterns and skills needs in Brazilian firms
by Leila Barbara and colleagues (1996) identified users of business English and Portuguese in different types
of business organizations and determined the communication types (written and oral) most widely used for
national and international business dealings.The investigation was a part of a larger international project
(DIRECT: the Development of International Research in English for Commerce and Technology) concerned
with describing and analysing business discourse in relevant contexts in order to provide a research base to
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support training programmes in the specific skills identified, as well as the development of teaching
materials.
This investigation is an example of a survey-based study that not only provides an extensive overview of
the written and oral communication tasks undertaken by Portuguese business practitioners in a specific
region in Brazil, but also promotes our understanding of the influence aspects of the wider corporate
context has on communicative practices in organizations which operate internationally.
An important point of interest in studies of business discourse in international contexts has been the use
of English as a lingua franca in, mostly
written, text types. Nickerson’s (1999) study provides an insight into the use of English in one division of
a large Dutch multinational corporation. This investigation combined a case study approach with a text-based
corpus investigation featuring a relatively new computer-mediated business discourse at the time, namely
business email (Collot and Belmore, 1996; Gains,1999; Mulholland, 1999; Gimenez, 2000). As such, it
remains one of the few practice-based business discourse studies to date that have considered authentic
electronic communication produced by non-native corporate writers of English. Nickerson gives examples of
how Dutch and English interplay in email communication in the Dutch multinational context , and pinpoints
the reasons why and when English is selected as the appropriate code in favour of the local language.
Collecting a corpus of discourse is also a useful research strategy in situations where the researcher wants
to engage in an in-depth linguistic analysis of a specific genre of business discourse or a particular text type.
A corpus is a body or collection of (written or spoken) texts. There is no fixed size for a corpus, or a specific
description of what it should contain. For example, a corpus could contain the annual reports for 2004 of the
top 50 companies in the Fortune 500, transcriptions of a series of Board meetings at a Swedish bank, or the
emails sent and received in a given month by a customer service employee.
Back translation is one of the most common techniques in cross-cultural research, and involves looking
for equivalents in languages through the translation of stimuli, survey items, interview data, central research
concepts, and so on. For example, in experiments involving cross-cultural comparisons (e.g., testing the
effectiveness of certain language strategies in two target cultures) back translation can help improve the
validity and reliability of experimental stimuli in the different languages involved. It requires that the quality
of translated stimulus material is verified by an independent translator translating back into the original
(source) language. The original and back translated texts are then compared to determine how equivalent the
different versions are, and to clarify or remove ambiguities.
The higher the equivalence achieved between the two versions of the experimental stimulus, the more
valid and reliable it is considered to be. Back translation is also used in business to develop equivalent
advertising texts across cultures, and to minimize language problems and cross-cultural gaps commonly
associated with international marketing campaigns. A statistical analysis (One-way Analysis of Variance:
ANOVA) was used to test whether the three versions of the job add differed with respect to the three
dependent variables (text evaluation; attitudes towards company and job; and text comprehension). With
regard to text evaluation, no statistically significant differences emerged between the scores on the three
versions with respect to attractiveness and intelligibility. However, the authenticity of the three versions of
the ad was assessed differently by the three groups of respondents. Overall, the completely English version
of the ad was regarded to be more natural than the other two versions.
As a whole, we can say that since the 80-s the methodology of business discourse research has changed
significantly. Particularly, the accent of written discourse has moved to the spoken discourse. The methods
have changed from quantitative to qualitative, from mono-methods to multi-methods, from intra-cultural to
cross- and inter-cultural, from Euro- (US-) centred to “international”, from mono- to multi-disciplinary [9].
Some perspectives in business discourse research in Kazakhstan
As we have mentioned above, cross-cultural approach to business discourse research is one of the most
up-to-date trends in contemporary discourse research. Though there is much done in the world linguistics in
this filed/field, Kazakhstani business discourse is not studied well. Lack of research in business discourse as
in Kazakh, so in Russian languages made many Kazakh linguists refer to the works of foreign researchers in
English business discourse in order to implement those experiences in kazakhstani reality in future. Today in
Kazakhstan English language business discourse dominates among other foreign languages in the field of
communicating with foreign partners and organizations. Moreover, E.Suleimenova and G.Burkitbayeva
emphasize that Kazakh and Russian languages are influenced much by English. English language business
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discourse is obviously more developed, steady, and has more advanced forms of various genres. So,
nowadays it dominates in our country and more demanded, displacing not only Kazakh, but Russian as well
[10]. However, the policy of trilingualism proposed by the President N.Nazarbayev makes us particularly
interested in studying business discourse of Kazakh language. As the leading role is given to English we find
it scientifically significant and valuable to make comparative research of pragmatic aspect of business
discourse in two languages. Special attention is given to cross-cultural approach, English discourse in
Kazakhstani organizations and Kazakh discourse in the same conditions. What is its role? How can the
communicants achieve the necessary perlocutionary effect in our non-native English language environment?
Those questions seem particularly interesting for us as a part of speech acts research and critical discourse
analysis. Certainly, authentic cross-cultural business negotiations are planned to be analyzed. As a
comparison, our work also includes a task where pure British and pure Kazakh negotiations will be
investigated.
Thus, on one hand, business discourse is a field where much significant research has been done. On the
other hand, there are still many untouched questions which must be investigated, and as a result will certainly
influence both on the linguistic part of business discourse and to solving some cross-cultural contradictions
in business field in general. So, our research is aimed to affect as to the theory of discourse and practical
business in contemporary language situation in the country.
1
V.Karassik. «Языковой круг: личность, концепты, дискурс». - Волгоград, 2002
2
TeunA.VanDijk.Language. Cognition. Communication. 1989
3
Fairclough. Discourse and social change. 1992
4
G.Burkitbayeva. «Деловой дискурс: онтология, интеракция и жанры». 2005
5
F.Bargiela-Chiappini, C.Nickerson and B.Planken. Business Discourse. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave,
Macmillan, 2007.
6
F.Bargiela-Chiappini, Nickerson. Business discourse, 1997
7
M.Lampi, H.Nyyssonen, R.Schulze, D.Neuendorff. Discourse analysis: openings. 1987
8
F.Bargiela. Business Discourse across ‘cultures’: data selection, collection and analysis. Warwick, 2010
9
A. Aymoldina. «Об изучении делового дискурса в современной лингвистике», Вестник ЕНУ, 2011
10
Address of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.Nazarbayev to the nation. December 14, 2012
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