An introduction to educational research methods. Введение в образовательные исследовательские методы Білім беру-зерттеу әдістеріне кіріспе

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learning could take place, and no learning did.

The next day you and the other expert pedagogues are informed of the truth, 

that the students were really robots. What have you to say now about the quality 

of the teacher’s performance? Does it occur to you that the teacher’s instruction 

the day before is now less remarkable and less deserving of praise? If you and 

your colleagues had indeed given all 10s for the teacher’s performance, would 

you now wish to withdraw these high marks? These questions are intended to 

prompt consideration of our sense of what makes up good teaching.

There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  judgments  rendered  by  you  and  your 

colleagues are likely to be affected by the robot responses selected by the 

operator. Suppose the operator had the robots respond differently, appearing 

to  be  bored,  asking  impertinent  questions,  and  generally  indicating  a  desire 

to be anywhere but in that classroom. You and your colleagues are likely to 

base part of your assessment of the teacher on how the students react to the 

teacher, providing higher marks to the teacher if the students are fully engaged 

with her, and lower marks if the students appear to be running strongly against 

her. We take this circumstance to indicate that our judgments of the worth or 

merits of teaching are learner sensitive but not learning dependent.

Source: Fenstermacher and Richardson, 2005: 193.

SUPPORTING AND SUPPLEMENTING OBSERVATION

It is good practice to record information about the context in which you undertook your 

observations, for example you ought to note how many students were involved, what the 

seating arrangements were, and perhaps also write a chronology of the events that took 

place during the observation. Making an audio or video recording will capture some of the 

classroom interaction in a more permanent form. 

Making audio recordings 

Tape recordings capture the sounds of a situation – although information about the 

classroom surroundings together with the non-verbal cues and gestures will be lost, the 

technique does enable you to collect a more complete record than just direct classroom 

observations. You might want to supplement your classroom observation with a tape 

recording of certain selected parts of the lesson. This is a relatively straightforward 

process, although listening to these later and making notes about the recording will take a 

substantial amount of time. Transcribed classroom dialogue is a really useful data source,

but it is probably only necessary for you to transcribe short extracts of the dialogue

unless the focus of the research is on classroom dialogue.

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Making video recordings

Video recordings are a good way of collecting the dialogue of the lesson as well as many

of the details recorded in direct lesson observation. By representing the sequence of

events in time, video recordings can make the context and causal relationships more

accessible than other methods of data collection. Student behaviour patterns can also

be recorded including the relationship between verbal and non-verbal behaviour.

Additionally, videotapes are also an excellent way of presenting a situation to others to

open up discussion.

However, there are also disadvantages. Although video recordings can provide a relatively

holistic record of the lesson, the sequences only show the view seen from the

perspective of the camera. In addition, good quality video recordings involve the use of

a lot of equipment which can be very distracting in a classroom, although the use of

smaller webcams has minimized this problem. The main difficulty lies in using the camera

in a static position and using it sufficiently frequently for it to become routine. More

seriously, video recordings can be misleading because they give the appearance of being

a complete record of events when, in fact, they are highly selective (the camera has been

pointed in one direction and there is no indication of periods of time when it has not

been recording).

Making good use of video recordings takes a lot of time. A careful analysis concentrating

on events that appear to be essential in terms of the research question requires

repeated viewing of the tape.

Sometimes a fixed camera is sufficient, positioned on a tripod at the (window) side of

the classroom and allowed to run for the whole session without pause. It can be focused

on a whole area of the room, on a group of pupils, or on one pupil. Recordings of this

kind make rather boring viewing for people not involved, but they provide a more 

complete

record of the session for purposes of analysis or discussion.

See Table 5.2 for a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of using audio/video

recording. 

ASKING PEOPLE ABOUT WHAT IS GOING ON 

Surveys

Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a questionnaire.

Surveys can be descriptive or explanatory, involve entire populations or samples of

populations, capture a moment or map trends, and can be administered in a number 

of ways. Another advantage is that this approach offers a degree of confidentiality and 

anonymity to the person taking part in the research.

Using a survey means that you are able to reach a large number of respondents and 

generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data in the process. The use of closed 

questions forces respondents to choose from a range of predetermined responses, which 

are generally easy to code and analyse.

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You can also use open questions which ask respondents to construct answers using their 

own words. Such survey questions can generate rich and candid data, but this can be 

difficult to code and analyse.

Although using a survey can generate large amounts of credible data, it is difficult to 

construct the actual survey. The overall process involves formulating questions, response 

categories, writing up background information, and giving clear instructions. Getting the 

layout and setting right, as well as achieving the right length and organization are also tricky. 

It can be difficult getting the questions just right and you must always try them out on a 

small group before widening your field.

It is best to keep the language simple and ask a critical friend to look out for poorly 

worded questions and statements that use complex terms and language. Avoid using 

ambiguous questions and statements with double negatives. Try not to ‘lead’ the 

respondent by using loaded, ‘ring true’ and hard-to-disagree-with statements or questions.

Surveys and questionnaires are usually administered mainly on paper, but data can also be 

collected online using open source software such as SurveyMonkey.

Standardized tests 

Psychologists and other social scientists have developed a wide range of self-report 

measuring instruments to assess attributes such as attitudes to learning, or cognitive ability 

tests used by some schools to measure students on entry.

Technically, such tests provide a scale on which you would assess an individual’s 

performance. You do need specialized training to develop such tests, so it is more sensible 

for you to use a recognized standardized test to supplement your own data, provided 

you can obtain details of the scoring system and are able to analyse the data collected 

(see Chapters 11 and 12). For example the Self Determination Theory (SDT) website 

presents a brief overview of SDT and provides resources that address important issues 

such as human needs, values, intrinsic motivation, development, motivation across cultures, 

individual differences, and psychological well-being (http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.

org/).

Table 5.3 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of using surveys and standardized 

tests. 

Interviews and focus groups 

Strictly speaking, an interview is a conversation between two people, and focus groups 

are conducted in small groups. The principles involved in both approaches are the same, 

although using focus groups can add further complications to the process, which

will be examined later. Both interviews and focus groups are communications that aim

to consult teachers and students about their points of view, interpretations and meanings

to help understand classroom dynamics. They are most often used to gather

detailed, qualitative descriptions, although even when done carefully, you will only be

able to establish what the interviewee thinks of his/her perceptions at a particular time.

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Table 5.3 

Advantages and disadvantages of using surveys and standardized tests

Establishing trust

In both interviews and focus groups, it will be important to establish trust and build

confidence before you start and this can be done by reassuring the interviewees that

their views are important. The relationship between you and the person you are 

interviewing will influence how they understand what is being said and vice versa. If you 

are interviewing one of your own students, this might be problematic as you and the 

student will have already developed a relationship, and, with this, various attitudes towards

each other. This may range from a completely trusting relationship to one of mistrust,

or one of affection to outright animosity. It may be the case that carrying out an interview

with a student who you find difficult might actually improve your relationship, if as a result 

you come to understand them and their behaviour better. However, if the student

perceives that you are only interested in reinforcing your negative impressions, then this 

may make things worse, and the student will assume that you are not interested in their 

own personal perceptions. In this case, it may be better if you could ask a colleague who 

does not know the students to do the interviews. 

Focus Groups

Focus groups are useful for revealing the beliefs, attitudes, experiences and feelings of 

participants. The interaction between participants as well as what participants have to 

say can reveal quite a lot about people’s views. For example, careful observation of the 

dynamics of interaction within the group context, can show consensus, disagreement 

and power differences between the participants. O’Brien (2007) used a group interview 

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same, although using focus groups can add further complications to the process, which 

will be examined later. Both interviews and focus groups are communications that aim 

to consult teachers and students about their points of view, interpretations and mean-

ings to help understand classroom dynamics. They are most often used to gather 

detailed, qualitative descriptions, although even when done carefully, you will only be 

able to establish what the interviewee thinks of his/her perceptions at a particular time.

Establishing trust

In both interviews and focus groups, it will be important to establish trust and build 

confidence before you start and this can be done by reassuring the interviewees that 

their views are important. The relationship between you and the person you are inter-

viewing will influence how they understand what is being said and vice versa. If you are 

interviewing one of your own students, this might be problematic as you and the stu-

dent will have already developed a relationship, and, with this, various attitudes towards 

each other. This may range from a completely trusting relationship to one of mistrust, 

or one of affection to outright animosity. It may be the case that carrying out an inter-

view with a student who you find difficult might actually improve your relationship, if as 

a result you come to understand them and their behaviour better. However, if the stu-

dent perceives that you are only interested in reinforcing your negative impressions, 

then this may make things worse, and the student will assume that you are not inter-

ested in their own personal perceptions. In this case, it may be better if you could ask a 

 colleague who does not know the students to do the interviews.

Table 7.3  Advantages and disadvantages of using surveys and standardized tests

Advantages of this approach 

Disadvantages of this approach 

Questionnaire-based surveys 

Surveys are relatively easy to administer, 

on paper or online 

The overall usefulness will be determined 

by the quality of the questions

Surveys are useful for collecting 

information from large samples 

You need to ensure that a large number 

of the selected sample will reply 

Many questions can be asked about a 

given area

Participants may not recall information or 

tell the truth about a controversial 

question 

Surveys are inflexible in that they require 

that the survey remains unchanged 

throughout the data collection 

Tests and scales

Standardization ensures that similar 

data can be collected from groups and 

then interpreted comparatively

Tests are difficult to develop and need 

considerable expertise to write and 

analyse 

The tests are usually reliable and data 

is easy to obtain, so observer 

subjectivity is eliminated 

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method to tap into the dominant, expected and approved views of a group of secondary 

school students. As this is an innovative method and one which might be useful to 

classroom teachers interested in consulting pupils, the procedures used are set out in Box 

5.2.

Box 5.2

The 96 groups were asked to list, collectively and anonymously, pejorative names 

that they hear being used at school, while the interviewer left the room for a 

few minutes. Each group was given a green sheet of paper headed ‘Extremely 

bad names to be called’ and a yellow sheet headed ‘Names which are bad to 

be called but not too bad’. The colours served as useful shorthand for referring 

to evaluations of severity.

Pejorative names were used as a proxy for perceived reasons for being bullied. 

They were coded by the researcher as targeting group or individual attributes, 

depending on whether they were racial or sexual epithets or insults that applied 

mostly to individuals. A pilot study revealed that this ‘confidential’ group activity 

was the most effective means of eliciting sensitive information regarding the 

pejorative names that young people hear being used between peers at school. 

It also revealed that abstract discussion about the relative severity of pejorative 

names was possible without the interviewer seeing the lists during the interview.

Discussion was prompted by the following questions: 

A What makes extremely bad (‘green’) names worse than not so bad (‘yellow’) 

names? Conversely, what makes not so bad (‘yellow’) names less severe?

B If you were bullied, would you rather be bullied for your skin colour or for 

your looks? 

The  first  question  prompted  general  attributions,  while  the  second  forced 

respondents to consider what victims of different forms of bullying might 

feel, thereby eliciting more focused answers about protective and harming 

attributions pertaining to group and individual stigmas. ‘Looks’ and ‘skin colour’ 

were chosen because they are not necessarily distinguishable. Respondents 

were free to select group or individual features for either, thereby revealing 

their socially constructed reasons for being bullied.

Source: O’Brien (2007).

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Activity 5.4 

Preparing for an interview

If you are interested in collecting data through interviewing, then consider the

following points:

Before the interview

•  What do you want to know and why?

•  Have you piloted your questions?

•  Make sure you are on time.

•  Have you set up and checked equipment?

•  How will you explain the purpose of the interview to the interviewees?

•  How will you make the interviewee feel at ease?

•  Have you explained the ethical guidelines?

•  Have you asked the interviewee if they are happy for you to tape the 

interview?

•  If they do not agree, then how will you record responses?

During the interview

A. Procedures

•  Remember that this is an interview so you need to listen more than talk.

•  Avoid interrupting trains of thought and accept pauses as a natural part of

•  reflection.

•  Accept whatever is said.

•  Ask for clarification if you are not sure what the respondent means.

•  Prompt and probe appropriately, and keep the pace moving.

•  Be true to your role.

•  Stop the interview when the time is right.

•  Don’t forget to thank the interviewee for giving up their time.

B. Questions

•  How will you ease the interviewee into the interview?

•  What strategic questions will you ask?

•  Are you using open questions?

•  Have you broken your key question into shorter questions to enable the 

interviewee to give you extended focused responses?

•  How will you deal with responses that will take the interview off in another

•  direction?

•  Are any of your questions likely to suggest or lead the interviewee to the

•  response you want to hear?

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Table 5.4

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Recording responses can be done in a number of ways; you may need to trial a couple 

of recording methods in order to assess what is best for you.

 

• Note-taking – this can range from highly structured to open and interpretive.

 

• Audio-recording – audio-recording allows you to preserve raw data for review at a 

later date.

 

• Video-taping – video-taping offers the added bonus of being able to record visual 

cues, but is more intrusive, is prone to more technical difficulties, and can generate 

data that is hard to analyse.

See Table 7.4 for a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews and 

focus groups.

Other sources of evidence

Documents

You may want to use grey literature such as government documents and other school-

based data and policies. Activity 7.5 provides questions which could be used when ana-

lysing documents. 

Table 7.4  Advantages and disadvantages of using interviews and focus groups

Advantages of this approach 

Disadvantages of this approach 

Interviews 

Provides rich data that paint a broad picture 

Can be difficult to get students or colleagues to 

participate because of time constraints 

May highlight issues not previously considered 

Interviews and large focus groups may intimidate 

some participants 

Can provide information to supplement 

quantitative data collected through other 

methods 

The complexities of people and the complexities of 

communication can create many opportunities for 

miscommunication and misinterpretation 

Focus 

groups 

Small focus groups may increase the comfort 

level of participants 

There is a danger that you may lead participants 

and encourage them to agree with your own views 

Focus groups are useful for revealing beliefs, 

attitudes, experiences and feelings of participants 

Some participants may dominate the group and 

their behaviour may lead to a false sense of 

consensus 

Focus groups can provide an insight into multiple 

and different views 

You may find it difficult to distinguish between 

individuals in the groups 

They can also provide information about the 

dynamics of interaction within a group context 

It will be difficult to generalize if your group size is 

small or not representative of the wider population 

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Advantages and disadvantages of using interviews and focus groups

Recording responses can be done in a number of ways; you may need to trial a couple of 

recording methods in order to assess what is best for you.

•  Note-taking – this can range from highly structured to open and interpretive.

•  Audio-recording – audio-recording allows you to preserve raw data for review at a 

later date.

•  Video-taping – video-taping offers the added bonus of being able to record visual cues, 

but is more intrusive, is prone to more technical difficulties, and can generate data that 

is hard to analyse.

See Table 5.4 for a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews and 

focus groups. 

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