An introduction to educational research methods. Введение в образовательные исследовательские методы Білім беру-зерттеу әдістеріне кіріспе

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Activity 5.5 

Analysing the relationship between content

and context of documents

Who wrote this document, what is known about the author(s)?

•  When? What is the background/context?

•  Where did the information come from – how was it collected/assembled?

•  Who is the intended readership?

•  What is it intended to do? Did the author aim to inform, persuade, express 

a view or preference…?

•  What is being taken for granted? What is not being said?

•  Is it complete? Has it been altered or edited? Is it an extract? If so, who 

selected it?

•  What connections are being made with other events/arguments/ideas?

•  How clearly does it communicate?

•  Is the information authentic, reliable and up to date?

•  Does it contain any contradictions/incoherences/understatements?

•  Does it rely on facts or interpretation?

•  How have the author’s assumptions about the audience shaped the 

document?

•  How  might  interpretations  of  different  recipients  (e.g.  parents/teachers/ 

educators/policy-makers) vary?

•  What do readers need to know in order to make sense of the document?

•  What values/ideologies or assumptions about the social/political/educational 

context are implicit in the text? e.g. Is there a sub-text? What is not seen as 

problematic?

•  What tone does it take? How credible is it and is there a hidden agenda?

•  What alternative discourses exist? Are these acknowledged, ignored or 

resisted?

•  What are the potential implications/outcomes?

•  Is there any external corroboration? What other forms of data would be 

useful?

Secondary sources

Secondary sources are existing data that were originally collected for purposes other

than your research, such as baseline data about students’ performance on entry to the

school, achievement data, standardized test scores, and school demographic data. See

Chapters 11 and 12 for more details.

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Box 5.3 

Key points to consider when starting to use visual images

When working with images for the first time it is important is to recognize that:

1.  There is no one visual method or perspective that has ascendancy over all 

other ways of sense making.

2.  We don’t ‘see’, we ‘perceive’, since the former is a biological norm and the 

latter culturally and psychologically informed.

3.  All images are regarded as polysemic (having many possible meanings).

4.  Word- and number-based researchers ‘skim’ imagery, taking it for granted.

5.  Visual researchers give imagery a ‘close reading’ (in-depth scrutiny and treat 

the visual as problematic).

6.  Images  can  be ‘researcher  found’  (generated  by  others)  or ‘researcher 

generated’  (created  by  the  researcher).  Both  are  integral  to  the  visual 

research process.

7.  The visual, as objects and images, exists materially in the world but gains 

meaning from humans.

8.  A photograph does not show how things look. It is an image produced by 

a mechanical device, at a very specific moment, in a particular context, by a 

person working within a set of personal parameters.

Visual images

Visual images can be used in two ways – firstly, you may want to record events in the 

classroom by using photography or, secondly, photographs can be used as prompts 

in interviews. This second approach of a photo elicitation technique involves using 

photographs or film as part of the interview – in other words, you ask your research 

subjects to discuss the meaning of photographs, films or videos. In this case, the images can 

be taken specifically by the researcher with the idea of using them to elicit information, 

and then the interviewee’s comments or analysis of the visual material is itself recorded, 

either on audio tape or video for subsequent analysis.

For example, see Cremin et al.’s (2011) paper which uses visual methods to study how 

pupils and teachers in an 11-16 mixed secondary school in an area of urban disadvantage 

in the UK experience pupil voice.

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Diaries and journals

Diaries can provide a good source of data. Your own research data might be useful as

a data source, or you might want to ask your research participants to record their own 

diaries for subsequent analysis. As with interviews, the guidance given for keeping diaries

may be completely open-ended or semi-structured through giving broad categories of

what to consider, including, or by asking for, regular responses to very specific questions.

So it is vital, if the diaries are to be completed by the participant, that you give clear 

unambiguous instructions to the writer about how, when and why they should enter 

data. The process of writing the dairy can empower the diarist too, through encouraging 

reflection and through valuing their ideas. Diaries also encourage the diarist to express 

opinions and reflect on activities that might otherwise be difficult for a researcher to 

expose.

The content of the research journals included personal observations, impressions,

feelings and analyses, and self-reflection and self-examinations concerning their team

teaching performance, team meetings, and so on. The diaries proved useful as a record

of the intentions of a teacher for a lesson, which could be used comparatively across the

set of teachers.

Diaries do not have to be in a written form. For some students, this would present an

insurmountable barrier, as well as also being a very time-consuming process. Visual diaries

offer an alternative, either by asking for a set of photographs to be taken or videos to be

compiled. While video capture, if by mobile camcorder, has the greatest cost implications,

the advantage is that an audio record of thoughts and reflections can be included. Noyes

(2004) circumvented the need to hand out a recorder by instead setting up a video diary

room in ‘big brother’ style. Still imagery collected either digitally (whether by mobile

phone or digital camera) or using traditional cameras (such as disposables) requires 

interviews or focus group discussion to explore the meaning associated with them.

However, Noyes’s approach does present ethical dilemmas about how images

of students can be used in classroom-based research (See Chapter 6)

Visual mapping

Concept mapping and mind mapping are related techniques currently being used in

educational and business settings to make explicit the connections between individuals’

ideas. In a school context, these could be used to improve the planning of work, notetaking

skills, the organization of thinking and the development of concepts, and in

preparation and support of assessments. Many of these techniques use computer software

packages both to structure data collection and to manipulate the data in analysis.

There are links to these packages on the SAGE website (www.sagepub.co.uk/wilson).

These techniques can also be used for research rather than instructional purposes. As

with the diary methods, these techniques allow access to the perceptions of those under

study. In addition, they also allow a respondent-centred method of exposing conceptual

understanding.

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Other mapping or visual representation techniques involve freehand drawing of what

might be termed ‘spider diagrams’. It is these methods, although less straightforward to

analyse, which allow the researcher to open up the scope of what is under study to the 

respondents. An open-ended network mapping tool developed by Fox was used to 

collect data for a project studying the flow of knowledge relating to the development of 

assessment for learning practices. This allowed members of staff to represent the personal 

and professional relationships relating to their school and which could act as channels 

for sharing practice and/or gaining new information and advice. Network mapping can 

be used to determine the nature and value of interrelationships relating to teachers and 

perhaps even be considered as a ‘map’ of their learning opportunities. It was not possible 

to guess these networks in advance of this task being used. This tool would also translate 

well to looking at the networks of children to consider the range of resources they have 

to learn from and/or to understand their social milieu. An alternative method of network 

mapping derived from sociological research, which can be used to examine networks 

of known extent, is called social network analysis. This is a tool worth considering if this 

too would be insightful in understanding the structure of a network – for example, 

how interconnected individuals are one with the other, and the who key individuals in a 

network are, in terms of their personal networks. Questions are asked systematically of 

all members of the network about how others relate to them and their relationship with 

named others. Free downloadable software is now available to handle such data – for 

example http://www.graphic.org/concept.html

To complement the use of imagery, referred to above with respect to diaries, freehand 

visual representations have also been found to be useful ways of gaining an insight into the 

perceptions of spaces.

In summary there are many methods that a classroom teachers could use to help answer 

a clearly identified research question. See Table 5.5.

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respondents. An open-ended network mapping tool developed by Fox was used to collect 

data for a project studying the flow of knowledge relating to the development of assessment 

for learning practices. This allowed members of staff to represent the personal and profes-

sional relationships relating to their school and which could act as channels for sharing 

practice and/or gaining new information and advice. Network mapping can be used to deter-

mine the nature and value of interrelationships relating to teachers and perhaps even be 

considered as a ‘map’ of their learning opportunities. It was not possible to guess these 

networks in advance of this task being used. This tool would also translate well to looking at 

the networks of children to consider the range of resources they have to learn from and/or 

to understand their social milieu. An alternative method of network mapping derived from 

sociological research, which can be used to examine networks of known extent, is called 

social network analysis. This is a tool worth considering if this too would be insightful in 

understanding the structure of a network – for example, how interconnected individuals are 

one with the other, and the who key individuals in a network are, in terms of their personal 

networks. Questions are asked systematically of all members of the network about how oth-

ers relate to them and their relationship with named others. Free downloadable software is 

now available to handle such data – for example http://www.graphic.org/concept.html

To complement the use of imagery, referred to above with respect to diaries, freehand 

visual representations have also been found to be useful ways of gaining an insight into 

the perceptions of spaces.

In summary there are many methods that a classroom teachers could use to help 

answer a clearly identified research question. See Table 7.5.

Table 7.5  Everyday tools for enquiry

Classroom maps

•  Look critically at the setup and decoration 

of the classroom. Whose work is up on the 

walls? How is the seating arranged?

•  Track movement flow—your own, a child’s, 

a group.

•  Track verbal flow—conversation between 

teachers and students and conversation 

among students.

Drawings and photographs

•  Quick sketch, visual notes.

Put both sketches and photographs in the same

notebook used to record anecdotal records and time samples.

•  Student work, a sample of an individual’s, small group, or entire 

class’s work collected over time. 

Anecdotal Records

•  Always add a date

•  Regularly jot down time

•  Focus on particulars

•  Write down actual quotes

•  Don’t censor

Interviews and Conversations

•  Always note date, time, place and name of the person(s) being 

interviewed

•  Think ahead about your goal for this conversation or interview. 

What do you want to learn?

•  Decide ahead about audiotaping and check your equipment.

•  Don’t ask questions that give you yes/no answers.

•  Be a good listener.

(Continued)

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Table 5.5 

Everyday tools for enquiry

SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH

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Key Ideas

There are numerous methods you could use to collect evidence to help answer your 

research question. These methods are usually identified during the research design 

stage. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. As a researcher, you need 

to be aware of what these are and do as much as you can to reduce the limitations 

imposed by a particular method.

Reflective Questions 

 

• Have you considered the ethics of using the data collection methods suggested 

in your research design? 

 

• Before you start collecting data, have you cosidered how you will minimize the 

limitations of the data-collection methods you propose using? 

Surveys 

•  Good for large groups or a whole class 

when you want comparative data

•  Types of questions you ask are important

•  Time it takes to complete is important

Sociograms

A sociogram is an analytical tool used to help you portray the social 

networks in your classroom. They are particularly useful if you’re 

trying to figure out how to change the interactive dynamic of the 

class. To develop the data for a sociogram, you ask every child in 

your class the same three questions, for example, (1)

 

If I were to 

form reading groups of four pupils, who would you like to have in 

your group? (2)

 

If I were to have four pupils stay for lunch with me, 

who would you like to have in your group? (3)

 

If you were a new 

pupil in the class, which three pupils would you suggest I ask to 

help you learn the ropes? Questions can be asked orally but you 

need to record students’ answers so you have data to draw on as 

you begin to map their responses.

Time-sampled observations

See figure 7.4 

Teacher research journals

Every teacher researcher should keep a research journal. It could 

have everything—the 10 minutes a day of writing that you are doing 

about your question, your notes from your anecdotal records, your 

reflections on those notes, your notes from background reading that 

you have done on your topic. It could, on the other hand, just be 

the place you record your thoughts about your research. Whatever, 

try to set it up so it really is a friendly place for you to write and so 

that it becomes precious to you. Do not leave it lying around in your 

classroom. This is where you think on paper. You want to keep it as 

a special place that you come to for special work on something that 

is of great importance to you.

Table 7.5  (Continued)

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Key ideas

There are numerous methods you could use to collect evidence to help answer 

your research question. These methods are usually identified during the research 

design stage. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. As a researcher, 

you need to be aware of what these are and do as much as you can to reduce 

the limitations imposed by a particular method.

Reflective Questions

•  Have you considered the ethics of using the data collection methods 

suggested in your research design?

•  Before you start collecting data, have you cosidered how you will minimize 

the limitations of the data-collection methods you propose using?

FURTHER READING

Deci, R. and Ryan, R. (2012) ‘Self determination theory’. Available at: http://www.self 

determinationtheory.org/ (accessed April 2012).

Drever, E. (1995) Using Semi-structured interviews in small-scale research: a teacher’s 

guide. Edinburgh: SCRE.

Fox, A., McCormick, R., Procter, R. and Carmichael, R. (2007) ‘The design and use of 

a mapping tool as a baseline means of identifying an organisation’s active networks’, 

International Journal of Research and Method in Education, 30(2): 127–147.

Hay, D. and Kinchin, I. (2008) ‘Using concept mapping to measure learning quality’. 

Education and Training, 50(2): 167–182.

Kinchin, I, Streatfield, D. and Hay, D. (2010) ‘Using concept mapping to enhance the 

research interview’, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 9(1): 52–68.

Munn, P. and Drever, E. (1997) Using Questionnaires in Small-scale Research: a teacher’s 

guide. Edinburgh: SCRE.

Prosser, J. (2006) ‘Real Life Methods Working Papers: Researching with visual images’, ESRC 

National Centre for Research Methods NCRM Working Paper Series 6/06. Available at: 

http://www.ncrm.ac.uk/ (accessed April 2012).

Prosser, J. and Loxley, A. (2008) Introducing Visual Methods. National Centre for Research 

Methods NCRM Review Papers NCRM/010. Available at: http://www.ncrm.ac.uk/ accessed 

April 2012

Simpson, M. and Tuson, J. (1997) Using Observation in Small-scale Research: A Beginner’s 

Guide. Edinburgh: SCRE.

Wragg, E. (1994) An Introduction to Classroom Observation. Abingdon: Routledge.

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СБОР ИНФОРМАЦИИ

ГЛАВА 5

Обзор главы

Данная глава основывается на идеях проекта исследований и дает 

рекомендации относительно преимуществ и ограничений каждого метода 

сбора информации, чтобы помочь вам со сбором данных. 

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Выбор методов сбора информации

Определившись с фокусом своего исследования, вопросами, ответы на которые вы 

хотите найти, и общей стратегией, которую вы хотите использовать, следующим 

этапом вам необходимо обдумать, какие данные вам необходимо собрать для 

ответа на поставленные вопросы. 

 

 Есть три возможных метода получения информации о школах и аудиториях. 

Во-первых, вы можете наблюдать за учениками и учителями за работой, чтобы 

выяснить, что происходит. Во-вторых, вы можете спросить учеников или учителей о 

том, что, по их мнению, происходит, и в-третьих, вы можете искать признаки других 

сведений, чтобы убедиться, что то, что вы исследуете, действительно произошло. 

 

Не существует правил, требующих от вас использовать для исследований 

лишь один метод. В аудиторном исследовании использование нескольких методов 

дает преимущество, хотя увеличивает время, необходимое для проведения вашего 

исследования. В самом деле, используя лишь один источник, вы можете упустить 

важные идеи, или хуже того, проникнуться мыслью, что ваше исследование выявило 

«правильный» ответ на проблему в вашей аудитории. Использование нескольких 

источников данных поможет вам учесть другие перспективы по мере углубления 

вашего понимания ситуации. 

Запись событий – использование дневника исследования

Ведение дневника исследований является весьма эффективным способом сохранения 

контроля над информацией, получаемой в рамках проекта. Содержание вашего 

дневника также можно использовать как источник информации, хотя оно будет 

отличаться от информации, наблюдений, записей и других собранных вами данных. 

Дневник содержит информацию о вас и о том, что вы делаете, и с точностью 

фиксирует процесс исследования. Он дополняет данные, которые приносит 

методология исследования. 

 

Некоторые используют весьма структурированный формат в виде готовых 

форм. Однако это необязательно, если вы можете ориентироваться в собственном 

дневнике. Весьма полезно оставлять свободное место для дальнейших комментариев 

или дополнений – на широких полях, на обратной стороне страниц или в больших 

промежутках между записями. 

 

Также отсутствуют какие-либо жесткие правила относительно стиля, 

формулировок и правописания. Ведите свой дневник так, как вам удобно, чтобы он 

помогал вам размышлять о том, что вы делаете. Подумайте о ведении собственного 

дневника, выполнив задание 5.1. 

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Планирование процесса сбора данных 

Определившись со своим методом и данными, которые необходимо собрать, 

рекомендуется тщательно спланировать каждый этап, прежде чем приступить к 

работе. Пример в таблице 5.1 иллюстрирует, как Ники, учитель естествознания в 

средней школе, планировала свой проект исследований. Она задала вопрос Каково 

отношение учеников к письменной работе на уроках естествознания? Затем 

она уточнила этот вопрос и решила применить в своем классе ряд стратегий и 

проследить изменение отношения учеников. Она разработала три вопроса и выбрала 

ряд методов сбора данных, которые, как она полагала, помогут ей ответить на эти 

вопросы. Ее общий проект исследований представлен в таблице 5.1. 

Таблица 5.1 

Проект исследований соискателя магистерской степени Med по 

естествознанию в средней школе 

жүктеу/скачать 32,4 Mb.

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