Кесте 12.2 Педагогикалық зерттеу ретіндегі іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу

What Is Educational Action Research?

648

Кәсіби оқыту

Кәсіби оқыту негізінен мұғалім жұмыс істейтін мәнмәтінде құрылған. Бұл әдеттегідей 

сынып, ол өз кезегінде, жалпы мектептің мәдениетін, мектеп орналасқан қоғам мен 

қауымдастықтың күшті әсерін басынан өткізеді. Сондықтан мұғалімнің өз сыныбы өзі 

жұмыс істейтін белгілі бір мәдени мәнмәтінде, сонымен бірге сол уақыттағы белгілі 

бір саяси мәнмәтінде тұрғандығы маңызды.

 

Тәжірибе жасау мәнмәтініндегі мұғалімдердің күнделікті тәжірибесі олардың 

түсінігін қалыптастырады, ал олардың түсінігі олардың тәжірибесін қалыптастырады, 

сондықтан егер тәжірибені меңгеру дамуды білдірсе, онда осы тамырын тереңге 

жайған ойларды да бағалау маңызды. 

 

Мұғалімдер мектептегі зерттеуді жүргізу арқылы өз сыныптары туралы 

мәліметтер алады. Көрсетіліп отырғандай, ықпалдастырылған оқыту мен іс-әрекет 

жасау айналымдары мұғалімнің оқытуына әсер етеді және бұл жағдай оқушылардың 

оқу тәжірибесін жетілдіреді. Ұлыбританияда мұны Frost (2003), Opfer and Ped-

der (2010), Wilson and Demetriou (2007) сияқты авторлардың жұмысы көрсетіп 

отырса, Жаңа Зеландия (Timperley et al., 2007) мен АҚШ-та да (Desimone et al., 

2002) ұқсас жұмыстар жүргізілген. Тимперли зерттеу айналымы мен білім алумен 

қатар осы ұстанымдарды ұстанады. Қорапшалардағы төрт сұрақтар мұғалімдер мен 

басшылардың көзқарасын негізге ала отырып құрылымдалған, өйткені олар жауап 

беруі тиіс. Алайда болжанып отырғандай, мұғалім осы үшін қолдау табады: зерттеу 

нәтижелері көрсетіп отырғандай, сыртқы сараптаманы тарту осындай зерттеу 

түрін тарту және мұғаліммен білім алу үшін ерекше маңызды болуы мүмкін. Бұл 

университеттік факультеттерде алынады. 

12.2 сурет. Тимперлидің мұғалімдік зерттеу диаграммасы (2012) 

 

Кəәсіби оқыту 

Кəәсіби  оқыту  негізінен  мұғалім  жұмыс  істейтін  мəәнмəәтінде  құрылған.  Бұл  əәдеттегідей  сынып,  ол  өз 

кезегінде,  жалпы  мектептің  мəәдениетін,  мектеп  орналасқан  қоғам  мен  қауымдастықтың  күшті  əәсерін 

басынан өткізеді. Сондықтан мұғалімнің өз сыныбы өзі жұмыс істейтін белгілі бір мəәдени мəәнмəәтінде, 

сонымен бірге сол уақыттағы белгілі бір саяси мəәнмəәтінде тұрғандығы маңызды. 

  Тəәжірибе  жасау  мəәнмəәтініндегі  мұғалімдердің  күнделікті  тəәжірибесі  олардың  түсінігін 

қалыптастырады,  ал  олардың  түсінігі  олардың  тəәжірибесін  қалыптастырады,  сондықтан  егер 

тəәжірибені  меңгеру  дамуды  білдірсе,  онда  осы  тамырын  тереңге  жайған  ойларды  да  бағалау 

маңызды.  

  Мұғалімдер  мектептегі  зерттеуді  жүргізу  арқылы  өз  сыныптары  туралы  мəәліметтер  алады. 

Көрсетіліп  отырғандай,  ықпалдастырылған  оқыту  мен  іс-əәрекет  жасау  айналымдары  мұғалімнің 

оқытуына əәсер етеді жəәне бұл жағдай оқушылардың оқу тəәжірибесін жетілдіреді. Ұлыбританияда мұны 

Frost (2003), Opfer and Pedder (2010), Wilson and Demetriou (2007)  сияқты  авторлардың  жұмысы 

көрсетіп отырса, Жаңа Зеландия (Timperley et al., 2007) мен АҚШ-та да (Desimone et al., 2002) ұқсас 

жұмыстар  жүргізілген.  Тимперли  зерттеу  айналымы  мен  білім  алумен  қатар  осы  ұстанымдарды 

ұстанады.  Қорапшалардағы  төрт  сұрақтар  мұғалімдер  мен  басшылардың  көзқарасын  негізге  ала 

отырып  құрылымдалған,  өйткені  олар  жауап  беруі  тиіс.  Алайда  болжанып  отырғандай,  мұғалім  осы 

үшін  қолдау  табады:  зерттеу  нəәтижелері  көрсетіп  отырғандай,  сыртқы  сараптаманы  тарту  осындай 

зерттеу  түрін  тарту  жəәне  мұғаліммен  білім  алу  үшін  ерекше  маңызды  болуы  мүмкін.  Бұл 

университеттік факультеттерде алынады.  

 

 

 

 

12.2 сурет. Тимперлидің мұғалімдік зерттеу диаграммасы (2012)  

 

 

 

Оқушылар үшін құнды артықшылықтарды 

қамтамасыз ету үшін мұғалімнің зерттеу жəәне 

білім алу айналымы  

Біздің 

оқушыларымызға 

қандай білім мен 

дағдылар қажет? 

Бізге 

мұғалімдерге 

қандай білім мен 

дағдылар қажет? 

Кəәсіби біліктілікті 

тереңдету мен 

дағдыларды 

жетілдіру 

Оқушыларды 

жаңа оқыту 

əәдістеріне тарту 

Өзгерген іс-

əәрекеттердің 

салдарлары 

қандай? 

What Is Educational Action Research?

649

Негізгі ойлар

Іс-әрекеттегі  зерттеу  –  тәжірибені  жетілдіру  үшін  іс-әрекеттегі 

қалыптастыруға  арналған  іс-әрекетті  зерттеудің  мойындалған  тәсілдерін 

пайдалана  отырып  іздеу  үлгісі  болып  табылады.  Іс-әрекеттегі  зерттеу 

машықтанушы  мамандарға  өз  тәжірибесін  зияткерлік  және  моральдық 

тұрғыдан бақылауға мүмкіндік береді. Зерттеуші мұғалімдер зерттеу әдістерін 

қатаң сақтануы тиіс, өйткені олар басқа да академиялық зерттеу түрлері үшін 

жалпы критерийлерге сәйкес келуі тиіс, яғни зерттеу сараптамалық бағадан 

өтуі,  ерекше  болуы,  маңызды  болуы  тиіс  және  мәліметтер  негізделген 

болуы және кез келген жасалған мәлімдемелер жиналған мәліметтермен 

расталған болуы тиіс. 

Рефлексияға арналған сұрақтар

1 Педагогикалық зерттеуді педагогикалық зерттеу жұмысы деп есептеуге 

болады ма? 

2 Осы жерде қарастырылған іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу үдерісімен http://www.

education.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/helen-timperley  Тимперлидің  «Кәсіби  оқыту 

үшін сыныпта дәлелдемелерді пайдалану» ұстанымы қалай байланысады? 

Қосымша оқу үшін 

Altrichter, H., Feldman, A., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (2007) Teachers Investigate Their

Work: An Introduction to Action Research Across the Professions (2nd edn). London:

Routledge.

Baumfield, V., Hall, E. and Wall, K. (2008) Action Research in the Classroom. London:

Sage. 

Herr, K. and Anderson, G.L. (2005) The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students 

and Faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2011) All You Need to Know About Action Research (2nd 

edn). London: Sage.

Stenhouse, L. (1985) Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of Lawrence 

Stenhouse. London: Heinemann.

Somekh, B. (2005) Action Research: A Methodology for Change and Development (Doing 

Qualitative in Educational Settings Series). Maidenhead: Mcgraw-Hill.

How To Do Action Research

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How To Do Action Research

651

HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH

ELAINE WILSON

CHAPTER 13

Chapter overview

This chapter will provide a step-by-step guide to carrying out school-based action 

research. Each stage will be exemplified using an actual published example of a 

classroom teacher’s research to change practice. The researcher’s questions and data 

collection process will be elaborated on to illustrate each stage of the process.

How To Do Action Research

652

MAKING THE COMMITMENT TO ENQUIRY

The first step in the process of doing action research is to identify a classroom issue you 

are concerned about and want to change (see Figure 15.1). The first stage starts with asking 

questions about things happening in classrooms that others might take for granted. At a very 

basic level this might be about finding out who is not answering questions in lessons or not 

handing in homework and why this might be the case? Alternatively

the question might be spurred on by reading about ‘Learning without Limits’ and the

transformability potential of setting up a more inclusive classroom environment (Hart

et al., 2004). Questions such as these can be uncomfortable to ask. They may produce

even more discomforting answers. However unless and until teachers grapple with the

hard questions, it will be impossible to do very much to improve pupils’ learning in

classrooms. So, in short, action research is a way teachers will learn about themselves as

teachers and learn how to become critical thinkers about teaching and learning.

Figure 13.1

 Doing action research

HOW DO TEACHERS DO ACTION RESEARCH?

The next sections will draw on an actual example of action research carried out in a

real classroom taken from a paper published in a peer- reviewed journal. The paper is:

Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’, Educational

Action Research, 17(2). 197 – 211. Short sections of the paper will be used to illustrate

the research process,Which and is broken down into stages.

HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH

243

granted. At a very basic level this might be about finding out who is not answering ques-

tions in lessons or not handing in homework and why this might be the case? Alternatively 

the question might be spurred on by reading about ‘Learning without Limits’ and the 

transformability potential of setting up a more inclusive classroom environment (Hart 

et al., 2004). Questions such as these can be uncomfortable to ask. They may produce 

even more discomforting answers. However unless and until teachers grapple with the 

hard questions, it will be impossible to do very much to improve pupils’ learning in 

classrooms. So, in short, action research is a way teachers will learn about themselves as 

teachers and learn how to become critical thinkers about teaching and learning. 

How do teachers do action research?

The next sections will draw on an actual example of action research carried out in a 

real classroom taken from a paper published in a peer- reviewed journal. The paper is: 

Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’, Educational 

Action Research, 17(2). 197 – 211. Short sections of the paper will be used to illustrate 

the research process,Which and is broken down into stages. 

1  Identify the problem you want to solve in your classroom 

Box 15.1 shows why and how the author identified the problem. 

1.Identify area

of study

2. Design Study

3. Make sense of

the experience

4. Begin again

5. Improve

practice

Figure 15.1  Doing action research

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How To Do Action Research

653

1 Identify the problem you want to solve in your classroom

Box 13.1

 shows why and how the author identified the problem.

2 Define the purpose and clarify what form the intervention will take

Box 13.2 

sets out the author’s rationale and what he proposed to do to rectify the problem.

Box 13.1 A real-world classroom-based problem

Action research is a form of action enquiry that employs recognized research

techniques  to inform  the  action taken  to improve practice. Action research 

gives practitioners intellectual and moral control over their practice. Teacher 

researchers  must  use  research  techniques  rigorously  so  that  they  meet  the 

criteria common to other kinds of academic research, that is their research 

must withstand peer review of procedures, be original, be significant, and the 

data must be valid and any claims made must be warranted by the evidence 

collected.

Box 13.2 Research rationale

‘Thus, I decided to conduct an action research project, starting from identifying

the needs of the educational practice. I aimed to develop pedagogic strategies

that would nurture student involvement in the learning process. As an action

researcher, I always considered practice and research to be mutually supportive,

and valued the dialogue between theory and practice (Johnson 2003, 370). For

this reason, I did not try to predetermine any strategies or curriculum content 

in detail. On the contrary, in a framework of ‘praxiology’, I wished to invite the

students to take part in the selection and organising of the curriculum content,

focusing on the learning strategies as well as on a dynamic and reflective

pedagogical process (Elliott 1991, 15–16). In this way, it is not educational theory

that  directs  and  dominates  practice;  rather,  in  an  interpretative  view  of 

educational theory and practice, ‘practical deliberation is informed … by the 

practical  exigencies  of  situation  and  it  always  requires  critical  appraisal  and 

mediation by the judgment of the actor’ (Carr and Kemmis 1986, 93)’. (Tsafos, 

2009. 198)

How To Do Action Research

654

3 Action research is about intervening to make changes

Boxes 15.3a provides details of the classroom context and 15.3b shows how the author

planned to stage and carry out the intervention.

Box 13.3 (a) Action and knowledge: the intervention

‘I was the teacher of Modern and Ancient Greek Language and Literature of

the third grade of high school (age group 14–15 years) in a pilot High School

in Athens. Pilot High Schools are state-run and enjoy an excellent reputation,

both regarding knowledge offered and in terms of students gaining access to

tertiary education. The term ‘pilot’ is but a name, not designating any 

experimentation.

The students’ parents are particularly interested in their children’s

achievements. This impeded the implementation of a research project, as

students were unfamiliar with such processes, while parents could react

adversely to the idea of experimentation. However, by choosing action research,

I provided students with a more active involvement in the research process.’

(Tsafos, 2009: 198)

Box 13.3 (b) Action and knowledge: general plan

‘Based on my teaching experience and on relevant bibliography, I decided to use

indexing as a teaching and learning method: The students, divided into teams,

undertake to deal with certain topics that are either mentioned explicitly or

implied in the text, and to collect data on these topics from all the teaching

units, for as long as the process lasts. Such topics could include: women, gods,

the political system, hospitality, costumes, and so forth. These are topics on

which taught literature expresses an opinion gradually; by continuously dealing

with them, students are better able to detect and process some basic ideological

parameters of the play.

So the students go through the text with a set of these categories against

which they collect information in order to form a general view of the ancient

Greek civilisation based on ancient Greek texts, become more familiar with the

texts, and practice a way of selecting and evaluating information’. (Tsafos,

2009: 199)

How To Do Action Research

655

4 Action research involves collecting empirical data in classrooms

Once the question has been decided, the next step is to consider how to answer this

and what sort of data to collect (Chapter 5). In this example the author has used a range

of data collection methods including interviews, surveys and classroom observation

(Box 13.4).

Box 13.4 Participatory and collaborative data collection methods

‘In order to collect the data and control the resulting findings intersubjectively,

I decided to invite to my classroom, as a critical friend and observer, the teacher

of another classroom of the same grade, with whom I enjoyed good collaboration.

We shared a common code, being fully aware of our differences. Thus, the

research material was collected from three sources, to ensure triangulation:

(a) Class teacher:

(i) Research journal and field notes, written after classroom interventions or

discussions with the critical friend and the students.

(ii) Recording of selected intervention extracts.

(b) Students:

(i) Semi-structured interview by the teacher/action-researcher and the critical

friend at the end of the process/research project.

(ii) Questionnaires after classroom interventions, including the questions:

• What kind of difficulties did you encounter while processing the indexing

topics?

• How would you characterise the process? (Indifferent, boring, interesting,

other.)

• What are your suggestions for its improvement?

• Student papers on the indexing topics.

(c) Critical friend:

(i) Observation of the activity and field notes on the process. (Tsafos,

2009: 200)

How To Do Action Research

656

THE ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE

Tsafos uses a Boomer et al. (1992) variant of the Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) cyclical

diagram Plan  Act  Observe  Reflect  Evaluate to explain the active research

process(Box 13.5).

Tsafos uses a Boomer et al. (1992) variant of the Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) cyclical

You can read how the author analyses and discusses his findings in the full paper:

Vassilis Tsafos (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’,

Educational Action Research, 17(2): 197–211.

A FURTHER EXAMPLE OF A TEACHER DOING ACTION RESEARCH

Figure 15.2 shows an example to illustrate the stages involved in another action research

process. In this example, a secondary science teacher carried out action research in her

classroom.

The research was initiated by a secondary science teacher who was unhappy with

how science teaching was done in her school. She believed that the dominant styles

narrowed the curriculum and reduced science to a series of facts. She wanted to

improve her teaching by integrating a new approach called ‘How science works’. As a

curriculum project this was appropriate but as a research focus it was much too general

so the teacher first narrowed her focus to that of helping her students to structure

an argument.

The next stage involved further reconnaissance in the classroom to establish exactly

what was currently being done by her colleagues to help students understand the different

ways of thinking about complex controversial issues in the science curriculum. The

teacher also asked a colleague to observe her approach and she consulted the students

in her class. At this stage, the teacher also found it useful to broaden her thinking about 

Box 15.5 Cyclic process

‘To be more specific, their (the students) active involvement in the research 

was not triggered by their research interest, but by their desire to negotiate the 

curriculum, as they felt it concerned them personally. Of course, according to 

Boomer, the stages of a curriculum process, where negotiation has a predominant 

role, show great similarities with the steps of an action research cycle:

Planning  Negotiating  Teaching and learning  Performing 

Evaluating. (Boomer et al. 1992, 35)’ (Tsafos, 2009: 207)

How To Do Action Research

657

Figure 13.2 

Action-research cycles 

PLANNING THE ACTION RESEARCH

Having narrowed her focus, the teacher arrived at a manageable research question for

her pilot intervention. This was: ‘Will my students be able to structure an argument better

if I teach them explicitly how to analyse the issues?’ The next stage involved not only plan-

ning how she would change her practice to help the students to analyse complex

issues, but also how she would analyse the data collected.

ACTING OUT AND OBSERVING THE INTERVENTION

The teacher subdivided her research question into two parts. She looked first for

evidence of the students’ ability to analyse issues, and secondly at how her students

teaching controversial issues through reading published accounts in the literature and

by discussing this with other colleagues beyond the science department. As a result, the

teacher refined her area of interest to argumentation in science lessons and decided that

the students’ problem may be aggravated by not knowing how to analyse the issues sur-

rounding the complex contexts she was teaching. The literature search and discussion

with colleagues outside her immediate environment had been crucial in helping her to

restate the original problem.

SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH

248

teaching controversial issues through reading published accounts in the literature and 

by discussing this with other colleagues beyond the science department. As a result, the 

teacher refined her area of interest to argumentation in science lessons and decided that 

the students’ problem may be aggravated by not knowing how to analyse the issues sur-

rounding the complex contexts she was teaching. The literature search and discussion 

with colleagues outside her immediate environment had been crucial in helping her to 

restate the original problem.

Planning the action research

Having narrowed her focus, the teacher arrived at a manageable research question for 

her pilot intervention. This was: ‘Will my students be able to structure an argument bet-

ter if I teach them explicitly how to analyse the issues?’ The next stage involved not only 

Research question:

‘Will my students be able

to structure an argument

better if I teach them explicitly

how to analyse the issues?’

Plan:

(a) how to teach students to

analyse complex issues

(b) how to collect data to

monitor effect

(c) how to analyse data

Act and observe:

Carry out new teaching

approach and data-

collection process

Reflect:

Analyse the evidence. Has the

problem been solved? If not,

decide on the next step. Has

this raised new questions?

Re-plan:

The revised plan to answer

the new question that has

arisen from the first cycle

Plan

Re-Plan

R

eflec

t

ACT 

a

nd Ob

ser

ve

R

eflec

t

ACT 

a

nd Ob

ser

ve

Figure 15.2  Action-research cycles

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How To Do Action Research

658

were constructing arguments. The data collected included audio recordings of

small-group dialogue, lesson observation notes carried out by a colleague and, following

the intervention, the use of a diagnostic probe to find out about students’

views of the concepts and the teaching approach. The teacher also analysed the

students’ written work and interviewed a small representative sample of students

(see Table 13.1).

HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH

249

planning how she would change her practice to help the students to analyse complex 

issues, but also how she would analyse the data collected.

Acting out and observing the intervention

The teacher subdivided her research question into two parts. She looked first for 

evidence of the students’ ability to analyse issues, and secondly at how her students 

were constructing arguments. The data collected included audio recordings of 

small-group dialogue, lesson observation notes carried out by a colleague and, fol-

lowing the intervention, the use of a diagnostic probe to find out about students’ 

views of the concepts and the teaching approach. The teacher also analysed the 

students’ written work and interviewed a small representative sample of students 

(see Table 15.1).

Table 15.1  Action-research data-collection plan 

Research Question 

Will my students be able to structure an argument better if I teach them 

explicitly how to analyze the issues? 

Sub-question 

Data source 

Data source 

Data source 

Data source 

1.  Can students analyse 

complex issues? 

Audio recording of 

small-group dialogue 

Diagnostic probe 

Semi-structured 

interviews with students 

Colleagues’ 

observation notes 

2.  Can students 

structure an 

argument?

Students’ written work

Diagnostic probe 

Semi-structured 

interviews with students

Reflecting and re-planning

Subsequent analysis of the data and reflection on the issues arising from the interven-

tion prompted the teacher to modify her approach and to undertake a second 

revised action-research cycle with the same data-collection methods. To be trans-

formative, action research needs to be carried out over a sustained period of enquiry 

and involve reframing the problem in light of new sets of questions. It is this ongoing 

reframing of the problem that leads to the transformative action that characterizes 

action research.

Going further than simply reflecting in action

In the example given in Figure 15.2 the teacher’s aim was to be more reflective and to 

develop a deeper understanding of this practice. The teacher researched her own classroom 

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Reflecting and re-planning

Subsequent analysis of the data and reflection on the issues arising from the intervention

prompted the teacher to modify her approach and to undertake a second

revised action-research cycle with the same data-collection methods. To be transforma-

tive, action research needs to be carried out over a sustained period of enquiry

and involve reframing the problem in light of new sets of questions. It is this ongoing

reframing of the problem that leads to the transformative action that characterizes

action research.

Going further than simply reflecting in action

In the example given in Figure 13.2 the teacher’s aim was to be more reflective and to

develop a deeper understanding of this practice. The teacher researched her own class-

room through close observation and reflection as well as undertaking informed action. 

This intervention did not involve the teacher in taking undue risks or making dramatic

changes.

Other forms of action research are associated with social transformation through

research efforts. Such situations may require that teachers or other researchers make

high risk changes that are driven by a deep commitment to equality, human well-being,

deeper understanding, and respect for others. In these circumstances, classroom-based

action researchers need to have a strong personal interest in the proposed action and

also have the authority to act for themselves in the research setting. Consequently,

action research involving social changes will mean taking calculated risks and making

prudent practical judgements about how to act in specific, often unique, classroom situa-

tions.

How To Do Action Research

659

For other action researchers, the primary goal will be to generate knowledge or

theoretical frameworks that other practitioners can draw on and adapt to improve prac-

tice within their own context.

Accordingly, because of these broad aims, action research has struggled to establish

itself as a serious form of academic research. Many questions continue to be

raised, such as: do practitioners draw on theoretical foundations when investigating

and reflecting on their practices and, if so, how? Do practitioners generate new

knowledge as a result of their action research? If so, what type of knowledge is this?

Can this knowledge be considered valid? These questions will be considered in the

next section.

CHALLENGING YOUR INTERPRETATIONS

You will always bring a number of assumptions to any process, so you need to be clear

about your own values and challenge your existing ideas. It is difficult to reflect on

your assumptions until you are aware of them, and even more difficult to engage in

discourse about something you have not identified. This is why it is essential for you

to work with a critical friend or group of people, and to constantly ask yourself, ‘What

is happening in my class?’ ‘What is important here?’ and ‘How can I understand what

is happening?’

The general questions below can help Structure ideas and lead to enquiring, testing

out and reflecting upon practical, personal or political issues within educational

situations.

1 What assumptions underlie this teacher’s interpretation of the data?

2 Is there another perspective or way of interpreting this situation?

3 What further questions does this analysis raise?

4 What sort of strategies would you suggest that this teacher might use to try to trans-

form the situation?

Activity 13.1

Read the following extract of a classroom teacher’s analysis of data she collected

from the first cycle of an action-research process and then discuss the questions

that follow this with your peers or your critical friend.

‘The picture that emerges from our various data sources is complex. By certain

standards, our class could be considered an accepting and inclusive environment

How To Do Action Research

660

for all children.

Every student received compliments from his or her peers, most children felt

that they were liked by their classmates, and all children were eventually selected

as someone’s ‘favourite’ friend. However, upon closer investigation, a disturbing

fact emerges: the children who look and sound different are not as popular as

their classmates. In fact, they form their own, separate social grouping. This may

be due to several factors.

First, the majority of our students with special needs suffer from expressive

and receptive language delays, which may impede their ability to engage in

conversation, share stories, and play with their schoolmates. Children of average

development became more linguistically adept across the year, and despite

explicit social instruction, the special education students were not acquiring

verbal skills at the same rate, and therefore did not learn to be able to negotiate

challenging social situations. As a result, they often relied on less languagebased

play, such as fantasy games, or less rule-oriented physical games such as

swinging on the monkey bars in the playground.

Second, because they do not live in the immediate neighbourhood, and

because of their parents’ busy work schedules, our children with special needs

had difficulty participating in out-of-school activities, and missed out on key

opportunities for shared social experiences and non-academic interactions. As

one parent reached out to these children and made efforts to integrate them

into her son’s after-school life, they brightened up, and seemed to feel ever 

more

accepted and excited by the prospect of a play date. It was astounding what a

play date could do for these children’s self-esteem, engagement in the community,

and social status.

Finally, when in school, the Inclusion students spent much of their time

together,  away  from  the  classroom.  Jennifer  and  I  tried  to  schedule  group 

activities

when we knew we would have our full enrolment, but students’ individual

schedules were complex and often unpredictable, and it was impossible to 

keep all students involved in every activity. In giving them special support, the 

instruction itself was setting them apart from the mainstream.

In some sense, a caste system has been set up in my classroom. While the

children in the class have been open-minded, flexible, and accepting towards

one another, some obstacles seem to be insurmountable in creating a truly

“inclusive” classroom’ (Zindler, 2003)

How To Do Action Research

661

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research, particularly classroom-based teacher work, is not universally accepted

as a public knowledge-generating process, and this might go some way to explaining

why there are few published examples of teachers’ own work (Chapter 14). Nevertheless,

experts in educational research are beginning to argue that existing criteria for judging

practitioner research are inadequate. John Elliott, a well-respected and active proponent

of practitioner research, argues that simply using existing tests of theoretical and method-

ological robustness as the only way of judging practitioner research fails to recognize

the value such work has for classroom teachers and the importance such work has for

building capacity among teachers as potential agents of educationally worthwhile change

(see Chapter 14).

Elliott (2006) has recently published criteria drawing on his own experiences

of teacher research to help make such judgements these are disused in the next

section.

ENSURING THAT YOUR OWN WORK IS RIGOROUS AND VALID

After completing your action-research project it will be important to disseminate your

findings to the wider world through the publication of a thesis or at a conference. To this

end it will be important that you address how well you have met the aims of your

research project.

For most classroom-focused action-research projects, the aim is to bring about a

change in your classroom practice so that you and your students grow as a result of your

intervention. In the process, you will generate new knowledge which is relevant to your

own classroom. This knowledge will have been validated through the systematic collection

of evidence by using appropriate methods. In other words, it will be possible

to judge the process, outcome, and catalytic and democratic validity of your own work

(see Table 15.2).

Table 13.2 

Linking action-research goals with quality criteria

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253

Table 15.3  Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006

Process Validity

Are appropriate methods used to answer the question?

(a)  Does the research focus on a problem that is of practical concern to the teachers involved?

(b)   Does the research involve gathering data from the different points of view, for example, the teacher, an observer, 

and students (triangulation)?

(c)  Does the research enable the teacher researcher to call their existing stock of professional knowledge (tacit 

theories) into question, and to test it against evidence gathered in their practical situation?

(d)  Does the research extend teachers’ understanding of their situation in a way that opens up new possibilities for 

action?

Democratic Validity

Are the researchers and researched engaged and included in the inquiry?

Is the research a rigorous conversational process in which the teacher opens up his/her practice to the rational scrutiny 

of students and peers, ‘in-voices’ their views of the action situation, and in the process demonstrates a disposition to 

subordinate his/her own prejudices to the search for an overlapping and un-coerced consensus?

Catalytic Validity

Is the research transformative?

(a)  Is the research a deliberative and self-reflexive process in which the teacher calls into question both his/her 

teaching strategies (means) and the aims (ends) to which they are directed, and then modifies each by reflecting 

on the other?

(b)  Is the research a process in which the teacher displays:

 

•  integrity in the pursuit of his/her educational aims and values

 

•  curiosity about other people’s interpretations of the action situation

 

•  objectivity and honesty about his/her own motives and reasons for action

 

•  open-mindedness towards the views of others and respect for their freedom of thought and action?

Outcome Validity

Has the process led to a resolution and/or a reframing of the problem?

(a)  Does the research enlarge the teacher’s sphere of personal agency in the practical situation through the realization 

of his/her educational aims in a sustainable form?

(b)  Does the research enable a teacher to generate a description of the complexities of the case in sufficient detail to 

be of universal significance to other teachers?

Table 15.2  Linking action-research goals with quality criteria

Goals of Action Research 

Quality/Validity Criteria 

1. The generation of new knowledge 

Process validity

2. The achievement of action-oriented outcomes

Outcome validity

3. The education of both researcher and participants

Catalytic validity

4. Results that are relevant to the local setting

Democratic validity 

5. A sound and appropriate research methodology

Process validity 

Source: Herr and Anderson (2005).

Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or hav-

ing a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you 

during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the 

process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy 

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662

Table 13.3 

Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006

Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or having

a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you

during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the

process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy 

to explore the complexity of your classroom and to take risks to make changes to your

practice.

You must remember that your classroom is unique and that the dynamics will

change daily, so try to avoid being despondent when things do not follow your plan

exactly. However, you need to persevere with your idea and modify your approach in

light of your increased understanding. Above all, recognize and value your own skill

as a classroom practitioner, especially when you first start to learn about the methods

HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH

253

Table 15.3  Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006

Process Validity

Are appropriate methods used to answer the question?

(a)  Does the research focus on a problem that is of practical concern to the teachers involved?

(b)   Does the research involve gathering data from the different points of view, for example, the teacher, an observer, 

and students (triangulation)?

(c)  Does the research enable the teacher researcher to call their existing stock of professional knowledge (tacit 

theories) into question, and to test it against evidence gathered in their practical situation?

(d)  Does the research extend teachers’ understanding of their situation in a way that opens up new possibilities for 

action?

Democratic Validity

Are the researchers and researched engaged and included in the inquiry?

Is the research a rigorous conversational process in which the teacher opens up his/her practice to the rational scrutiny 

of students and peers, ‘in-voices’ their views of the action situation, and in the process demonstrates a disposition to 

subordinate his/her own prejudices to the search for an overlapping and un-coerced consensus?

Catalytic Validity

Is the research transformative?

(a)  Is the research a deliberative and self-reflexive process in which the teacher calls into question both his/her 

teaching strategies (means) and the aims (ends) to which they are directed, and then modifies each by reflecting 

on the other?

(b)  Is the research a process in which the teacher displays:

 

•  integrity in the pursuit of his/her educational aims and values

 

•  curiosity about other people’s interpretations of the action situation

 

•  objectivity and honesty about his/her own motives and reasons for action

 

•  open-mindedness towards the views of others and respect for their freedom of thought and action?

Outcome Validity

Has the process led to a resolution and/or a reframing of the problem?

(a)  Does the research enlarge the teacher’s sphere of personal agency in the practical situation through the realization 

of his/her educational aims in a sustainable form?

(b)  Does the research enable a teacher to generate a description of the complexities of the case in sufficient detail to 

be of universal significance to other teachers?

Table 15.2  Linking action-research goals with quality criteria

Goals of Action Research 

Quality/Validity Criteria 

1. The generation of new knowledge 

Process validity

2. The achievement of action-oriented outcomes

Outcome validity

3. The education of both researcher and participants

Catalytic validity

4. Results that are relevant to the local setting

Democratic validity 

5. A sound and appropriate research methodology

Process validity 

Source: Herr and Anderson (2005).

Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or hav-

ing a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you 

during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the 

process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy 

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663

of education research. If possible, seek out expert help from a more experienced

researcher or undertake formal research-methods training. Finally, and probably most

importantly, set aside sufficient dedicated time to think, reflect and talk so that you can

really engage fully with this professionally liberating process.

Action research will not provide all the answers to our questions about how students

learn or what educators can do to improve practice. But action research happens at the

place where these questions arise; it happens where the real action is taking place; and

it allows for immediate action.

Key ideas

Action research is an educative process carried out in social situations that 

usually involves posing and solving problems resulting in a change intervention. 

This cyclic process of improvement and involvement is common to the research 

traditions discussed: technical, positivist/post-positivist, interpretive and also to 

critical inquiry.

Reflective questions

1 What key issue have you identified that you want to change?

2 Have you used the very latest research knowledge to inform what you do in

your intervention?

3 Have you read Chapters 5 and 6?

How To Do Action Research

664

Further Reading

Altrichter, H., Feldman, A., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (2007) Teachers Investigate Their

Work: An Introduction to Action Research across the Professions (2nd edn). London:

Routledge.

Baumfield, V., Hall, E. and Wall, K. (2008) Action Research in the Classroom. London:

Sage.

Herr, K. and Anderson, G.L. (2005) The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for

Students and Faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2011) All You Need To Know About Action Research

(2nd edn). London: Sage.

Stenhouse, L. (1985) Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of

Lawrence Stenhouse. London: Heinemann.

Somekh, B. (2005) Action Research: A Methodology for Change and Development

.Maidenhead McGraw-Hill.

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ПОРЯДОК ПРОВЕДЕНИЯ 

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ В ДЕЙСТВИИ

ELAINE WILSON

ГЛАВА 13

Обзор главы

Данная глава является пошаговой инструкцией по проведению школьного 

исследования в действии. Каждый этап будет объяснен на реальном 

опубликованном примере исследования классного учителя с целью изменения 

практики. Будут рассмотрены вопросы исследователя и процесс сбора данных, 

чтобы проиллюстрировать каждый этап процесса. 

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668

Обязательство по проведению исследования

Первый этап процесса проведения исследования в действии – это выявление в классе 

проблемы, которая вас беспокоит, и которую вы хотите изменить (см. Рисунок 13.1). 

Первый этап начинается с вопросов о том, что происходит в классах, и что другие 

могут  воспринимать  как  должное.  На  самом  базовом  уровне  это  может  касаться 

выяснения, кто не отвечает на вопросы на уроках или не сдает домашнюю работу, и 

почему это так? Или же вопрос может возникнуть после чтения об «Обучении без 

границ» (Learning without Limits) и трансформационном потенциале за счет установки 

более  инклюзивной  классной  среды  (Hart  et  al.,  2004).  Такие  вопросы  может  быть 

неудобно  задавать.  Они  могут  дать  еще  более  неудобные  ответы.  Однако  пока  и 

если учителя не разберутся со сложными вопросами, будет невозможно сделать что-

либо для улучшения учебы учеников в классах. Одним словом, исследование в действии 

помогает учителям узнавать о себе как учителях и понять, как начать аналитически 

размышлять о преподавании и обучении. 

Рисунок 13.1 Проведение исследования в действии 

Как учителя проводят исследование в действии?

В следующих разделах будет использован реальный пример исследования в действии, 

проведенного  в  реальном  классе,  взятый  из  статьи,  опубликованной  в  экспертном 

журнале. Статья называется: Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action 

research  project’,  Educational Action  Research,  17(2).  197  –  211.  Краткие  отрывки  из 

статьи будут использованы для иллюстрации процесса исследования, который разбит 

на этапы. 

жүктеу/скачать 32,4 Mb.

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