Мальцева Н.А. Компетентностный подход в реализации
идеи непрерывного образования в системе повышения
квалификации учителей музыки...................................................
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На основании решения Комитета по контролю в сфере образования и науки (приказ №433-3 ж от 26 июня 2003 г.)
Вестник КазНПУ им. Абая, серия «Педагогические науки» внесен в перечень изданий для публикации основных научных
результатов диссертаций по педагогическим наукам.
Білім және ғылым саласындағы бақылау Комитеті Алқасының (2003 жылғы 26 маусым №433-3 ж бұйрығы) шешімі
негізінде Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ-дың Хабаршы журналының «Педагогика ғылымдары» сериясын педагогика ғылымдары
бойынша диссертациялардың негізгі ғылыми нәтижелерін жариялайтын басылымдар тізбесіне енгізілгені туралы
хабарлайды.
Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ-дың Хабаршысы, «Педагогика ғылымдары» сериясы, №2(42), 2014 ж.
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Қ
АЗІРГІ БІЛІМ БЕРУДІҢ МӘСЕЛЕЛЕРІ
ПРОБЛЕМЫ СОВРЕМЕННОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
УДК 3777.09
Shaban, Ali Ali –
Al-Azhar University Cairo, Egypt
THE DIFFICULTIES OF READING ARABIC AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Abstract:
This paper aims to investigate the problems associated with reading Arabic as a foreign language. Any worker in the field
of teaching Arabic as a foreign language must have noticed that learners of Arabic face some problems that lead to hindering
or slowing down their progress in reading as a language skill. Anderson (1999) defines reading as an active, fluent process
which involves the reader and the reading material in building meaning. Meaning does not reside on the printed pages nor is it
only in the reader. In the same direction, Urquhart & Weir see reading as a process of receiving and interpreting information
encoded in language form via the medium of print (1988, p. 22). It means that the role of the shape of the print is crucial in
facilitating or hindering the reader's progress. This paper tried to pinpoint the difficulties that face non-native Arabic learners,
and the different factors pertaining to those problems. An empirical tool, to be described below, was used to achieve the
objectives of this paper.
Key words: kataba, al-baramikah, germination, kutub, kataba.
Despite the fact that a lot of work has been done on this area of study, the overwhelming majority of the findings of
this paper were not shown or mentioned in earlier works. The scope of this study covered the orthographic,
phonological, lexical, syntactic, semantic, and contextual factors that shaped the accuracy, fluency, and comprehension
of the texts read by the students participating in this study. The results showed that there are some areas in the Arabic
language that posed real challenge to the reader; (1) Determining the correct vowel that goes with second consonants of
the verb-root. (2) Determining the correct vowel that goes with the tense-subject morpheme of the present tense. (3) The
grammatical case endings of verbs and nouns according to the grammatical function they carry in the sentence.
There has been a growing interest in teaching and learning Arabic as a second or a foreign language all over the
world. A great deal of research relating to this subject matter was published in different periodicals. Reading, as a
language skill, has captured the attention of workers and researchers in the field of teaching foreign languages long time
ago. For example, Ching Yin Leung (2002), Mokhtari, K., and Reichard, C. (2002), Frances H. Mecartty (2000), and
Abu-Laiel. reported different types of reading difficulties in Japanese, English, Spanish, and Arabic respectively. Their
works examined different participants in different levels of education.
In the last twenty years or so, a good deal of attention has been given to investigating the problems pertaining to
reading in Arabic. In fact, reading in Arabic is intrinsically different from reading in most other languages. This is due
to the fact that Arabic is a member of the Semitic family, which has some special calligraphic characteristics.
Arabic has a special alphabetical system. In his Course in General Linguistics, (Arabic translation, 1985, p. 52),
Ferdinand de Saussure maintains that the Greek alphabet is the origin of all other alphabets, whereas Coulmas, F. (1993,
p. 314) sees that the Phoenician alphabet is the alphabet from which the Greek and other alphabets originated.
However, the Greek and Phoenician alphabets differ in many respects, the most relevant of which is vowelization. The
Greek from the very beginning used a writing system that represents all the sounds of any given word; consonants and
vowels, whereas the Phoenician and Semitic languages neglected writing the vowels, and recorded the consonants only
in their writing system. The early establishment of the Arabic writing system was not divergent, in most of its details,
from the early establishment of the Semitic writing systems in general, that is, the southern Arabic alphabet, known as
Al-Musnad, which is the representative of the earlier stage of the Arabic alphabet, was void of any symbol that refers to
vowel sounds, be they long or short. The northern Arabic alphabet as well, originated from the Nabatean, was also void
of reference to vowels. It is worth mentioning that the northern alphabet is the dominant Arabic system now, and on
which many modifications were done (Abu-Eid, 2009).
The current Arabic alphabet comprises twenty eight letters, three of which are semi-vowels (ي ،و ،ا), as they can be
used as consonants or vowels. In addition to these, Arabic has three short vowels, which are not normally represented
by letters, but by diacritics that are placed above or beneath the written letters, they are called Fatħa; short vowel "a",
Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ-дың Хабаршысы, «Педагогика ғылымдары» сериясы, №2(42), 2014 ж.
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Kasrah; short vowel "i", and Dhammah; short vowel "u". These diacritics are not normally represented in the written
form of Arabic language except for pedagogical purposes or for religious scriptures, especially the Qur'an.
The phonological representation of the Arabic alphabet is one to one correspondence, that is, each grapheme has
only one phonological value, and each sound has only one grapheme. Juxtaposition of certain graphemes yields a
phonological phenomenon called 'germination', the most common example of it happens when the definite article "al" is
prefixed to nouns beginning with one of a closed set of sounds (14 sounds) known as "sun sounds". The sound "l" of the
definite article becomes identical to the adjacent "sun sound" and gets geminated to it.
This brief presentation of the Arabic writing system has been indispensable as reading in its essence heavily rests on
recognizing and decoding the written symbols of the written language. The first thing that faces the language learner is
reading. Reading in its essence is a complex of mental processes that aim at deciphering the written symbols, rendering
them into phonological values, and extracting a meaning out of them. It is axiomatic that the relationship between letter,
sound, and meaning is arbitrary, as there is no logical connection between the shape of the letter and its phonological
value, neither between the total sum of the phonological components of a given word and its meaning. During this
process the reader endeavors to build a mental image of the words he is reading (Al'ayed, S., 1995, p. 8).
Reading in Arabic requires more cognitive demand, and mental processes for associating a written symbol to its
phonological representation, as the Arabic alphabet employs a considerable number of extremely similar symbols; the
only way of distinguishing between them is by placing a dot or more above or beneath the symbol. Moreover, some of
them have different forms according to their positional occurrence in the word; the most acute of them is the letter (
ـھ
).
And when the vowels that shape the final form of the word, and determines their grammatical relationships with other
lexical items in a given utterance are absent, the cognitive demand for reading comprehension is certainly magnified.
Accurate reading in Arabic requires operating many cognitive processes; among them:
1-Envisioning the symbols that constitute the word, and linking them to their appropriate phonological
representations.
2-Envisioning the appropriate form of the word. In this stage he/she is obliged to choose from a number of choices
that may go up to five; each of them has many possible readings and many different interpretations. This is due to the
fact that the absence of short vowels in Arabic made it a homographic language. So, the reader exerts more cognitive
efforts, and applies many mental processes to decode and render the written symbols into sounds, then, infer their
meanings. For example, the root K T B: to read, has five possible lexemes; Kataba: he wrote, kutiba: it was (has been)
written, Kattaba: asked or forced to write, kuttiba: was asked (forced) to write, kutub: books, and katb: writing, or
abdomen.
1-Recognizing the morphological and morpho-phonological structure of the word.
2-Realizing the grammatical relationships holding between the components of the sentence.
3-Recalling the lexical meaning of those components, and inferring the proper contextual meaning of the whole
utterance.
Some earlier researches were done to measure the effects of the absence of short vowels on reading comprehension
in Arabic (
Abu-Rabia, S. 2007; Abdulbari, M. 2011; Muhammad, F. 2011; Sartawi, Z. n.d.; Na'ima, W. 2012;). These
researches examined native dyslexic and normal speakers of Arabic, but this paper examines normal non-native learners
of Arabic at the university level. The participants were the final semester, fourth year students of the Arabic language
section in both Abai and Al-Farabi universities, Almaty, Kazakhstan. They comprised 12 students from Abai
University, and
13 students from Al-Farabi University. Both groups studied Arabic as a major subject for eight
semesters.
The measurement was designed to test the phonological, lexical, morphological, and grammatical knowledge of the
students, and the impact of the knowledge of these factors on facilitating reading in Arabic. It comprised three
paragraphs; ten lines each, on different topics. They were written without short vowels to reflect the normal Arabic
printed material. The material was reader friendly, in the sense that the students studied them in earlier semesters, and
was suitable to their level. (Anderson & Armbuster, 1982).
The students were asked to mark all the letters with the appropriate vowel markers according to their understanding
of the texts. They were given enough time for considering the morphological structures of the words, their lexical
meanings, and the grammatical function of each word so that they can decide the case-ending marker of each word.
They were not allowed to receive any help from the invigilators or their colleagues. The next day, they were asked to
voice record the same texts twice; once form a copy without the short vowels, the other from a vowelized copy. Voice
recordings aimed at measuring the linguistic accuracy, and the fluency of the participants, as well as the seen reading
strategies each of them used. Other strategies used by the participants were revealed when the results of scoring their
answers were discussed with them. The discussion aimed also at verifying the students' knowledge, and explaining the
Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ-дың Хабаршысы, «Педагогика ғылымдары» сериясы, №2(42), 2014 ж.
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discrepancies that were spotted between marking the written forms with vowel markers and the vowels they used in the
oral recordings. In some cases, the vowels used by a given participant in the written form were different from those
he/she used in the oral recording. Rating the students was not an aim of this study. It only aimed at detecting the
difficulties that non-native learners of Arabic face.
The rationale behind this measurement is that accuracy and fluency in reading Arabic as a foreign language reveals
the student's degree of phonological accuracy, morphological awareness, lexical and contextual meanings, and the
knowledge of the grammatical relationship holding between the lexical items in the sentence.
The results showed deficiencies at many linguistic levels; phonological, morphological, and grammatical. The
phonological errors were detected from the voice recording, whereas, other errors were detected from voice recordings
and the written papers.
The most common phonological errors can be grouped in: (1) the absence of the fricative dental sounds (ð), (θ), (ẓ).
(2) Misusing the stress patterns. (3) Inaccurate use of the definite article "Lam ashshamsiyya" (Normally known as" Sun
Letters"). (4) Mixing between long and short vowels. (5) Mixing between Hamzat al-qat؟ (the pure glottal stop) and
hamzayul-wasl (joining glottal stop).
The most recurrent morphological errors were represented by: (1) Word class (verb/noun/adjective/adverb
distinction). (2)Derivation: Noun-adjective-adverb distinction. (3) Tense (inability to use the correct vowel-marker with
the tense-person exponent in the present tense verbs). This is well-related to the recognition of the verb root. (4)
Determining the correct vowel that goes with the second consonant of the root in the present tense form.
The most recurrent grammatical errors were acutely exemplified by: (1) The inability to use the correct the
grammatical case-endings. (2) The inability to distinguish between normal nouns and mamnu' min as-sarf (diptote
nouns).
Discussion
The relationship between phonological awareness and reading ability has been tested in English and other
languages, resulting in compelling evidence that an understanding of the phonological constituents of words is an
important determiner of reading success in many other alphabetic orthographies besides English (Yopp, 1988; Treiman,
1992; Durguno˘ glu, Nagy &¼ ancia-Bhatt, 1993; MacBride-Chang, 1995,
Abu-Rabia, S. 2007). Recognizing the
letters and linking them to their phonological values did not seem to pose a major problem to the participants of this
study. They showed stable ability to decode the written symbols and render them to recognizable sounds that did not
hinder understanding them. But the fluency in reading was something else. Many of the participants took longer time
than expected for achieving this transformation process. The errors that occurred in the voice recordings were not
prevailing in the rendering of the written characters, but in trying to guess the unseen components, i.e., the short vowels.
Short vowels, in Arabic, decide the morphological form of the word, for example, kataba (verb: he wrote) versus kutub
(plural noun: books), which, in turn, assigns a syntactic function to the word, and helps denoting the overall meaning of
the utterance. This clearly shows that the correct guessing of the unseen short vowels leads to creating the ultimate
phonological shape of the word. This is as a sub-reading skill in itself. Abu-Rabia, S. (2007. p. 93) noted that "
The most
important skill in phonological processing is the association of sounds with letters, that is, the understanding of
grapheme–phoneme conversion rules and the exceptions to these rules".
This remark does not tune well with the written
unvowelized Arabic texts, since the process of grapheme-phoneme linkage without detecting the short vowels, is not
sufficient to decode a written Arabic text. A major function of short vowels in Arabic is assisting the reader to envision
the final shape of the word, through providing him with the full information he/she needs to decode its morphological
structure and its grammatical function (Abu-Leil, et. Al. p. 28).
Accuracy at the phonological level cannot be achieved without guessing the correct short vowels.
Abu-Rabia (1996)
tested the role of vowels on reading accuracy in Arabic among highly skilled Arabic readers aged 17–18 years.
The
results indicated that vowels had a significant effect on the reading accuracy of poor and skilled readers in each reading
condition. The same results hold for the non-native participants of this study, as accuracy was clearly manifested during
reading the vowelized copy of the material. However, fluency was less noticeable than accuracy. Most of the
participants stressed the fact that the vowel markers were an impediment to their normal fluency, as they are not used to
it.
This was really astonishing, as it was in full agreement with observation noted by for adult Arab readers (Abu-Leil,
et. al., p. 28).
The reader reads the text and interprets its meaning by mentally providing the missing grammatical information
(vocalization process) that leads to an acceptable interpretation. This amounts to an additional manual/human
annotation with decisions that may have a non-trivial impact on the overall annotation routine in terms of both accuracy
and speed (Maamouri, M. et.al. 2004).
Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ-дың Хабаршысы, «Педагогика ғылымдары» сериясы, №2(42), 2014 ж.
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Another acute observation was recorded about the stress patterns the students produced. Stress patterns of the
students' mother tongue, which they transferred to the target language played an unmistakable role in diverting the
phonological shape of some words, especially those which tend to bear the stress on the first or second syllables. The
Kazak language tends to place the stress on the final syllable.
The factor of guessing was clearly manifested strategy in deciding the grammatical case ending. The word order the
students of Arabic are familiar with is verb + subject + object (or any other complement). When the lexical meaning or
the grammatical feature (such as transitive/intransitive) of the verb, is absent, guessing plays a major role in choosing
the case ending of the following nouns. For example, in the sentence:
ﻢھداﺪﺒﺘﺳاو ﻢﮭﻤﻠظ ﻦﻣ نﺎﻛ ﺎﻣ ﺔﻜﻣاﺮﺒﻟا ﺐﻜﻧ ﺎﻤﻧإو
What afflicted the Barmakids with disasters is the injustice and tyranny they prevailed
The verb nakaba (afflicted with disaster) was unfamiliar to most of the participants, so, they attributed the function
of the subject to following word al-baramikah (the Barmakids), whereas it is the object, not the subject, of the verb.
This strategy of Analogy to the normal Arabic word order was recurrent in the students' answer. But the case was a
complete chaos when the sentence involved two animate or inanimate words representing the function of subject/object
or a genitive structure in the sentence. This happens when the lexical meaning is absent. The dichotomy
animate/inanimate is a crucial clue for deciding the grammatical functions of the sentence components. Accurate
reading requires producing the grammatical case endings that is governed by the grammatical relationship holding
between the constituents of the sentence. This, on the other hand, requires that the reader should understand or be
familiar with the meaning of the lexical items of the sentence. The dilemma is that, one can produce a correct and
accurate reading in most of the languages we know so long as he can link the written symbols to their phonological
values. This is due to the fact that consonants and vowels are represented in the data he is dealing with. But in Arabic,
where short vowels are missing, this mental or cognitive process of rendering written symbols into sounds is not enough
for producing accurate reading. Intensive lexical familiarity, doubled with a high skill to choose from many possible
homographs, and a sound knowledge of Arabic grammar is an indispensible factor for accurate reading.
How can a curriculum provide for all of these factors at the Asian university level? Day & Bamford (2002)
advocated the ten principles presented by Williams, Ray in 1986 for teaching reading, which he called "Extensive
reading", as a remedy for this prevailing problem,. These principles were meant to be guide lines to teachers to help
their students make up for the limited time assigned to reading in curricula, the absence of interesting texts in school
books, and to encourage the students to choose what they want to read. This is an alternative put forward for improving
the reading skills, enhancing the students' feelings towards the language they learn, and creating a taste and sense in the
language.
Unfortunately, these principles do not tune well with the Arabic language and the Asian context in which we work.
It does not tune well with Arabic as reading in Arabic always needs guidance from the teacher on deciding the
necessary short vowels, otherwise, the student will possibly acquire the wrong form the words, which might be
incurable in the future. The only alternative is to provide vowelized texts for extensive reading, which entails a heavy
financial burden. On the other hand, it does not tune well with the Asian context, as Thomas Robb denotes, "in
institutionalized settings in many parts of Asia, where the priorities of the students favor extra curricular activities, such
as, part-time jobs, clubs and social life, over learning, simple encouragement will not be effective with a large number,
and perhaps the majority, of one's students" (Robb, T. 2002). This exactly holds for the Central Asian context, where
social life, and part-time jobs are prior to any thing else in a student's life.
Another proposal was set forth by Palinscar. A. S. et al, (1984, p. 168) for engulfing the gap of learners' weakness in
reading. She calls it "The reciprocal teaching method", and maintains that it could be the prime reason for success. She
quotes some reasons for supporting her proposal. First, it involves extensive modeling of the type of comprehension
fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities that are usually difficult to detect in the expert reader, as they are
executed covertly. The reciprocal teaching procedure provides a relatively natural forum for the teacher to engage in
these activities overtly, and hence to provide a model of what it is that expert readers do when they try to understand
and remember texts. Second, the reciprocal teaching routines force the students to respond, even if the level of which
they are capable is not yet that of an expert. Thus, the reciprocal teaching procedure involves continuous trial and error
on the part of the student, married to continuous adjustment on the part of the teacher to their current competence.
This method sounds suitable for the Arabic teaching context. It prompts mutual reading activities between the
students and teachers, which, in turn, leads to guiding the students to achieve useful rounds of fruitful teaching, and
acquiring the sound phonological performance on the students' part.
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