KAZAKHSTAN: KEY INDICATORS (2013)
Population
17 037 508
Surface area
2 724 900 km
2
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), current prices
USD 232 billion
GDP per capita, current prices
USD 13 610
Real GDP growth, constant prices
6.0%
Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)
38%
Imports of goods and services (% of GDP)
27%
Agriculture, value added (% of GDP)
4.9%
Arable land (% of total land area) , 2012
8.5%
Rural population (% of total population)
47%
Employment in agriculture (% of total employment)
24%
Agricultural exports (% of total exports)
3.5%
Agricultural imports (% of total imports)
9.7%
Source: World Bank (2014b), World Development Indicators database,
http://data.worldbank.org/
,
accessed April 2015.
14
15
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Agriculture is an essential sector in Kazakhstan, but production is highly
fragmented
Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country in the world and, with an average
of 6.1 inhabitants per square kilometre, one of the least densely populated.
Kazakhstan also has the second highest availability of arable land per capita, and
over 77% of its territory is classified as agricultural land. Agriculture plays an
important role in Kazakhstan’s economy, society and political system. It accounted
for 5% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2013, and was the largest sector by far in
terms of employment (24%). Trade in agricultural products has risen substantially
since the early 2000s, driven by growth in wheat exports, higher incomes and
increased demand for imported food products. Recently, growth in agricultural
imports has outpaced exports, leading Kazakhstan to become a net importer of
agricultural products since 2009. Reducing the country’s reliance on food imports
and ensuring food security are important strategic agricultural policy objectives. The
sector is also an essential part of the government’s strategy to diversify the economy
and reduce its dependence on mineral and fossil fuel resources.
The early 1990s transition led to a sharp collapse in agricultural output. Almost
20 million hectares of cropland were abandoned, and livestock inventories in the
large-scale state and collective farms fell by 95%. The post-independence period
saw important structural reforms to the agricultural sector, leading to the
introduction of private ownership of land and the privatisation and restructuring of
collective farms. These changes resulted in a substantial reallocation of production
from large-scale agricultural enterprises to small-scale producers. In 1991
agricultural enterprises produced 68% of agricultural output, but by 2013 their share
had fallen to just 24%. Correspondingly, households and individual farms went from
producing 32% of agricultural output in 1991 to 76% of total production, 66% of
crop output and 89% of livestock production in 2013.
In spite of their significance to overall production, small farms in Kazakhstan
face a number of market failures that impede their ability to access supply chains
and marketing channels, compete with large-scale agricultural enterprises, and reach
16
their full productivity potential. The main obstacles include deficiencies in basic
rural infrastructure; limited access to agricultural education, research and
development (R&D), and extension services; credit constraints; and a lack of
mobility in the market for agricultural land.
Agricultural co-operatives can strengthen the competitiveness of small-scale
producers
Agricultural co-operatives can enhance competitiveness and productivity in
agriculture, and improve the impact of policies to address market failures faced by
small-scale producers. Co-operatives can support small farmers in a number of
areas, including marketing, processing, input supply, access to credit, access to farm
machinery, agricultural extension, and improved management of water distribution
and irrigation. As members of co-operatives, small farmers can benefit from
economies of scale, increased bargaining power, greater efficiency, improved co-
ordination, and easier access to supply chains and marketing channels. Co-
operatives can also help to improve the sustainability of small-scale farming, boost
local production and reduce reliance on imported food products.
Agricultural co-operatives play an important role in improving the efficiency of
policy implementation. Governments can provide financial and technical support
directly to co-operatives, reducing administrative costs and improving the efficiency
and targeting of policies. They also reduce the need to provide government support
directly to small farms, by providing an institutional structure for producers to
address their specific economic needs through a collaborative member-driven
process. This is particularly relevant to Kazakhstan, which has struggled to
successfully implement policies to support small farmers.
There are significant opportunities to develop agricultural co-operatives in
Kazakhstan, particularly in sub-sectors where small-scale and subsistence-oriented
farmers dominate production. In 2012, households and individual farms accounted
for over 90% of the production of milk, vegetables, potatoes, cotton and wool, as
well as the majority of meat and oilseed production. This is viewed as a major
structural challenge by the government of Kazakhstan.
Policy support is needed to develop agricultural co-operatives in Kazakhstan
Agricultural co-operatives are underdeveloped in Kazakhstan, and many
registered co-operatives are inactive or ineffective due to poorly designed policies.
Co-operatives are often established solely to take advantage of government subsidies
and support programmes, and provide no real benefits to their members. Several
challenges need to be addressed in the short-term to facilitate agricultural co-
17
operative development in Kazakhstan. First, there are weaknesses in the current
policy environment. The current legal framework is unnecessarily complex, with
five separate laws on co-operatives. In addition, tax policies can lead to double
taxation of co-operative members, creating disincentives to the formation of new co-
operatives.
Second, farmers have limited confidence in co-operatives and little awareness
of their potential benefits. Kazakhstan’s Soviet legacy means farmers automatically
associate the term “co-operative” with a production co-operative, a remnant of the
former collective farm system. They do not understand the concept of co-operatives
in the context of a market economy, and have little confidence in their potential
benefits. Moreover, there are no targeted educational programmes in place to train
co-operative members in operational issues and support co-operative managers on
governance.
Third, there is a lack of targeted financial support for agricultural co-operatives
in Kazakhstan. Co-operatives require substantial initial investment, as well as
finance for short-term working capital and long-term investment needs. Currently, a
small amount of financial support is provided through subsidies and concessional
loans to co-operatives. These policies suffer from inefficiencies and poor targeting,
and have been largely ineffective in stimulating the development of a sustainable
and member-oriented co-operative movement.
Long-term challenges will also need to be tackled to ensure the sustainability of
agricultural co-operatives in Kazakhstan. For instance, there are significant skills
shortages in rural Kazakhstan, particularly in the agricultural sector. This is partly
driven by low agricultural wages, which make it difficult for co-operatives to find
skilled employees and managers. Furthermore, input suppliers, processing facilities
and retailers have little interest in using co-operatives to sell inputs to or purchase
outputs from smallholders. In Kazakhstan, there are no policies or programmes in
place to encourage these large players to work with co-operatives. Additionally,
there is a lack of proactive behaviour towards co-operatives, such as forward
contracting, renting transport equipment, and supplying co-operative members with
technical and financial assistance.
18
Short-term policy actions to strengthen agricultural co-operatives in Kazakhstan
To strengthen agricultural co-operatives in Kazakhstan in the short term, the
government should implement the following actions, based on international good
practice:
1.
Policy environment: reform the legal framework for co-operatives, reform
the Tax Code, reduce the tax burden for co-operatives and simplify
registration procedures.
2.
Awareness and trust: educate small farmers in rural areas on the benefits
of co-operatives and provide information services and technical assistance
to those setting up co-operatives.
3.
Targeted financial support: develop targeted financing instruments for co-
operatives, and encourage greater private sector participation in co-
operative financing.
19
CHAPTER 1: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIVES IN
KAZAKHSTAN
This chapter assesses the current state of agriculture in Kazakhstan, and outlines the
potential opportunities and specific challenges for the development of agricultural co-
operatives. Agriculture plays an important role in the economy of Kazakhstan, with over
one-quarter of the labour force depending on the sector for income and employment.
Although agricultural production, trade and investment have increased substantially in
recent years, many small-scale producers face difficulties accessing markets and supply
chains and struggle to reach their full productivity potential. In this context, agricultural co-
operatives can help small farmers to tackle market failures and overcome their size-related
disadvantages.
To support the development of agricultural co-operatives, the government needs to
address three prevailing issues in the short term: 1) a weak policy environment (i.e. the
legal and regulatory framework for co-operatives); 2) low levels of awareness and trust;
and 3) the lack of targeted financial support. Over the long term, the government will also
need to address the limited availability of skilled personnel in rural areas, and the presence
of multiple barriers to vertical integration.
20
Agriculture is an important sector in Kazakhstan with a highly fragmented
structure of production
Agriculture plays an important role in the economy of Kazakhstan, with over
one-quarter of the labour force depending on the sector for income and employment.
Despite its importance, however, agricultural production remains highly fragmented
and labour productivity is significantly lower than in OECD countries: value added
per worker in Kazakhstan’s agricultural sector was USD 3 533 in 2012, compared
with the OECD average of USD 15 700 (World Bank, 2014b). Small-scale
producers account for the majority of agricultural output in virtually all regions of
Kazakhstan, yet they often face difficulties overcoming market failures and
connecting with local supply chains.
Agriculture is an essential part of the economy of Kazakhstan
Agriculture is a sector of vital economic, social and strategic significance in
Kazakhstan. Although its share of gross domestic product (GDP) has declined
significantly since transition, agriculture still accounted for 5% of GDP in 2013, and
was the largest sector by far in terms of employment (24%). Figure 1 illustrates the
evolution of agriculture’s share of GDP and employment since 1990.
Figure 1. Ev
olution of agriculture’s share in GDP and total employment, 1990
-2013
Note:
Agriculture’s share in employment is not strictly comparabl
e across the entire time period, due to a
change in the statistical definition of employment in the late 1990s.
Source: Committee on Statistics, Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan (2014),
www.stat.gov.kz
,
accessed September 2014.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Share in GDP (%)
Share in Employment (%)
21
The significance of Kazakhstan’s agricultural sector is closely related to the
country’s geography and abundant land resources. With a total surface area of
2.74 million km
2
, Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country in the world. The
vast majority (over 77%) of Kazakhstan’s territory is classified as agricultural land,
most of which is occupied by permanent pastures. Arable land makes up only 9% of
the total land area, yet Kazakhstan still has 1.5 hectares of arable land per capita: the
second highest ratio in the world after Australia (2.1 hectares per capita).
Agricultural output is expanding rapidly, along with trade and foreign
investment. The main food products in Kazakhstan’s agricultural sector are cereals
(representing 19% of total production in 2012), horticultural crops (17%), dairy
cattle (16%) and beef cattle (14%). Kazakhstan is a major producer and exporter of
grain, ranking sixth in the world for wheat exports in 2013 (USDA, 2014a).
Agriculture represented 3.5% of total exports, 17% of non-fuel exports and
9.7% of total imports in 2013. Figure 2 illustrates trends in exports and imports of
agricultural products since 1995. Total trade in agricultural products has risen
substantially since the early 2000s, driven primarily by growth in grain exports,
higher incomes and increased demand for imported food products. However,
agricultural trade flows remain highly volatile. For instance, grain exports were
affected by export restrictions imposed by the government in 2009 in response to
global supply shortages and soaring international food prices. Imports and exports of
grain are also influenced by crop yields, which are highly sensitive to local weather
conditions. Drought had a severe impact on wheat yields in 2011 and 2013, and
good surface and subsurface soil moisture levels had substantial benefits for the
grain harvest in 2012 (USDA, 2014a). These factors combine to generate significant
volatility and uncertainty in agricultural trade flows.
22
Figure 2. Evolution of agricultural exports and imports, 1995-2013 (USD million)
Source: UN Comtrade (2014), United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics database, UN Comtrade,
http://comtrade.un.org/data/
, accessed September 2014.
In recent years agricultural imports have outpaced exports, leading Kazakhstan
to become a net importer of agricultural products from 2009. Reducing the country’s
reliance on food imports and ensuring food security are strategic policy objectives
for the government of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan has made significant efforts to
diversify exports away from the Russian Federation and towards markets in Central
Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Imports have not followed this trend, however,
with increasing shares of food products originating from Russia, Belarus and
Ukraine. This will likely continue as trade links with Russia and Belarus are further
strengthened under the Eurasian Economic Union.
In addition to being important for food security and social stability, agriculture
is also an essential part of the government’s strategy to diversify the economy and
reduce its dependence on mineral and fossil fuel resources. Agriculture has
consistently been identified as a priority sector in government programmes for
diversification, export promotion and the attraction of foreign direct investment
(FDI). Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of FDI in agricultural industries since 1993.
FDI in primary agriculture has remained low over the past two decades due to legal
and regulatory restrictions on foreign investment, in particular Article 23 of the Land
Code, which prohibits the ownership of agricultural land by foreign enterprises
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Agricultural exports
Agricultural imports
Agricultural trade balance
23
(OECD, 2012). In contrast, FDI in food processing has risen rapidly over the past
decade, at an average annual rate of 23%.
Figure 3. Evolution of FDI in agriculture and food processing, 1993-2013 (USD million)
Source: National Bank of Kazakhstan (2014)
, “Direct Investments Statist
ic according to the directional
principle”,
www.nationalbank.kz/?docid=469&switch=english
, accessed September 2014.
The importance of agriculture is also reflected in Kazakhstan’s agricultural
policies and institutions, which have expanded their objectives beyond the
traditional areas of food security, efficiency and competitiveness to encompass areas
such as environmental protection, sustainable development, improving the social
and technical infrastructure, and rural development. A number of central state
agencies are active in the agricultural market. These include a network of “social-
entrepreneurial corporations”, responsible for developing investment projects in
Kazakhstan’s regions through public-private partnerships, and KazAgro Holding,
which is made up of seven subsidiary agencies operating in a range of areas relevant
to agricultural policy (Food Contract Corporation, Agrarian Credit Corporation,
KazAgro Finance, Fund for Financial Support to Agriculture, KazAgro Garant,
KazAgro Product and KazAgro Marketing). In addition to designing and
implementing agricultural support programmes, some state agencies also hold
dominant positions in specific markets and are invariably involved in commercial
operations and the financing of large-scale investment projects (OECD, 2013).
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Agriculture
Food processing
24
Agriculture experienced a difficult transition, with significant changes to the farm
structure
The transition period in the early 1990s led to a steep collapse in agricultural
output. Price liberalisation, exposure to external market forces and a breakdown of
government support to agriculture generated large price adjustments, particularly for
inputs and outputs that were formerly subsidised by the state. The terms of trade in
agriculture deteriorated substantially, causing a sharp reduction in investment and
plunging the sector into a major debt crisis. Almost 20 million hectares of cropland
were abandoned between 1990 and 1999, representing a 57% decline in the area of
land allocated to crops in 1990. The land area occupied by the large-scale state and
collective farms declined by 65%, and livestock inventories fell by 94%.
The post-independence period involved important structural reforms to the
agricultural sector. Reforms during the early and mid-1990s were primarily focused
on land ownership and the privatisation of collective farms. The basic legal
framework was established in the Land Code enacted in 1991, which decentralised
the responsibility for land management to local governments, and set out the basic
principles for the division of the land and assets of collective farms. This was
followed by a Presidential Decree On Land in December 1995, which officially
allowed for private use rights of agricultural land under 99-year leases, and further
reallocated land belonging to restructured agricultural enterprises. The length of
long-term land leases from the state was shortened to 49 years in 2001, and a new
Land Code was adopted in 2003. Full recognition of property rights and private
ownership of agricultural land did not occur until 2005, with the implementation of
the new Land Code (OECD, 2013). These reforms were essential in facilitating the
expansion and development of small-scale farming by establishing property rights,
enabling the sale and purchase of agricultural land, creating incentives for
investment in land, and allowing for land to be used as collateral.
In practice, the process of agrarian de-collectivisation often resulted in an
inequitable reallocation of the land and assets of former collective farms amongst
farm workers and managers. The top-down nature of government policies allowed
farm managers and local authorities to exercise substantial discretion in the
redistribution of agricultural land and farm assets. Misappropriation and asset
stripping were commonplace, and small-scale farmers were typically forced to
operate with limited access to credit, poor infrastructure and an inadequate
regulatory environment (Toleubayev, Jansen and van Huis, 2010).
The farm structure that emerged from transition is reflected in the current
statistical classification, which recognises three distinct categories of producers: 1)
agricultural enterprises, which are mostly large-scale farms that were formerly part
25
of a state or collective farm; 2) individual farms, typically small to medium-sized
privately owned operations that hire outside labour; and 3) households, which are
often micro or small-scale plots used by families for subsistence-oriented farming.
1
This report focuses on individual farms and households, hereafter referred to as
“small-scale producers”, “small-scale farmers” or “smallholders”.
The reforms to land ownership and the farm structure resulted in a substantial
reallocation of production from agricultural enterprises to small-scale producers.
There were 7 965 registered agricultural enterprises in Kazakhstan in 2013, with an
average land area of 4 747 ha. This represents a substantial decline in land held by
large-scale farms from 1991, when a total of 4 594 agricultural enterprises operated
with an average land area of 42 929 ha. In 1991 large-scale agricultural enterprises
produced 68% of agricultural output, and by 2013 their share had fallen to just 24%.
These changes were accompanied by a corresponding increase in the importance of
individual farms and households (illustrated in Figure 4).
Достарыңызбен бөлісу: |