Figure 8. Concessional lending to co-operatives from the Agrarian Credit Corporation
(ACC), 2006-2011
Source: OECD (2013), OECD Review of Agricultural Policies: Kazakhstan 2013, OECD Publishing, Paris.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264191761-en
.
Existing policies offering financial support for co-operatives suffer from
inefficiencies and poor targeting. Consequently, a large proportion of co-operatives
in Kazakhstan are inactive and do not provide real benefits to their members. These
inactive co-operatives were often established to take advantage of government
support, were formed without a clear development strategy and suffer from
insufficient commitment from their members. This situation is encouraged by the
absence of incentive-based instruments such as co-financing arrangements.
Furthermore, agricultural co-operatives are unable to obtain funding from many
of the other KazAgro agencies: co-operatives are not eligible to participate in state
grain purchases by the Food Contract Corporation, there are no micro-lending
programmes targeted to co-operatives under the Fund for Financial Support to
Agriculture, and co-operatives do not have access to machinery and equipment
leasing from KazAgro Finance.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
5
10
15
20
25
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Loans to co-operatives (USD million)
Share in ACC credit portfolio (right axis, %)
45
Internal funding from member capital is also essential for co-operatives to
maintain competitiveness and ensure sustainability in the long-term. However, co-
operatives in Kazakhstan struggle to create the necessary incentives for members to
increase their involvement and investment in the co-operative enterprise. Increased
patronage is an important source of member financing, but typically requires
additional working capital for operations, and may only be possible by investing in
buildings, machinery and equipment. Co-operatives also find it challenging to
generate significant surpluses to cover future investment needs, as they often face
pressure to distribute their surplus by offering favourable prices to members (FAO,
2004). This could be the result of co-operative members not understanding that their
organisation is an enterprise and as such needs to retain parts of the surplus for its
development. Moreover, many farmers in Kazakhstan view agricultural co-
operatives as ineffective, and consequently existing co-operatives have difficulty
attracting capital from new members.
Additional long-term challenges to the sustainability of agricultural co-operatives
To ensure the future sustainability of the co-operative system, the government
will need to tackle a number of additional challenges in the long term. These include
the limited availability of skilled personnel in rural areas and the presence of
multiple barriers to vertical integration.
Limited availability of skilled personnel
Agricultural co-operatives typically rely on hired personnel, allowing their
members to concentrate on farm production. However, it is often difficult for co-
operatives to find skilled employees and managers. Rural areas in Kazakhstan often
suffer from a shortage of skilled personnel, particularly in the agricultural sector.
This is partly driven by low wages for workers in agriculture. According to the
Committee on Statistics under the Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan
(2014), the average monthly salary in agriculture in 2014 was KZT 60 012
(Kazakhstani tenge, equivalent to EUR 254), compared with the national average of
KZT 115 017 (EUR 487) and the average in the industrial sector of KZT 149 301
(EUR 633).
Multiple barriers to vertical integration
Agricultural co-operatives can play an important role in acting as an
intermediary between small-scale farmers and large-scale input suppliers, processing
facilities and retailers. In Kazakhstan, there are no policies or programmes in place
to encourage these large players to work with co-operatives, and they have little
interest in using co-operatives to sell inputs to or purchase outputs from
46
smallholders. Part of the reason for this is the lack of a sophisticated multi-level
structure in the current co-operative network. Currently there is little to no co-
operation among co-operatives in the formation of secondary co-operatives, co-
operative unions and co-operative federations.
Other significant weaknesses include the lack of a developed quality assurance
system and limitations in the contract security system. Additionally, there are no
policies in place to promote proactive behaviour from input suppliers, processors
and retailers towards co-operatives. Assistance from the private sector could come in
various forms, such as forward contracting, renting transport equipment, and
supplying co-operative members with technical and financial assistance.
47
CHAPTER 2: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS TO STRENGTHEN
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIVES BASED ON INTERNATIONAL
EXPERIENCE
This chapter provides directions for further policy reform in Kazakhstan, based on
international experience in addressing the challenges faced by agricultural co-operatives
outlined in Chapter 1. It provides structured recommendations for policy makers, with
specific guidance on the reforms needed to improve the competitiveness of small-scale
producers through agricultural co-operatives. These are:
1.
Reform the legal and regulatory framework for agricultural co-operatives.
2.
Provide education, information services and technical assistance to agricultural
co-operatives.
3.
Provide targeted financial support for the establishment of agricultural co-
operatives.
48
Chapter 1 identified three major challenges to the development of agricultural
co-operatives in Kazakhstan. To address these challenges, this report outlines a set
of policy recommendations based on international good practice. Figure 9
summarises the challenges and corresponding policy recommendations for the
government of Kazakhstan.
Figure 9. Overview of challenges and policy recommendations
Source: OECD analysis.
Policy environment: an effective legal and regulatory framework can create
strong incentives for the establishment of new co-operatives
Agricultural co-operatives are bottom-up democratic organisations, established
by their members to fulfil a specific economic need. This implies minimal
interference from the state in the establishment and development of co-operatives,
with government intervention limited to the provision of a supportive and enabling
policy environment. Reforming the legal and regulatory framework should therefore
be a central component of the government’s strategy to strengthen agricultural co-
operatives. Kazakhstan should develop a single law for co-operatives taking into
account international good practice, reduce the tax burden on agricultural co-
operatives and simplify registration procedures.
49
International experience in designing co-operative laws and regulations
Co-operatives are typically governed by a number of laws and regulations,
including the relevant legislation on co-operatives, as well as the labour law,
competition law, tax code, accounting and prudential standards, book-keeping rules,
and audit and bankruptcy rules. Laws and regulations for agricultural co-operatives
in OECD countries reflect social and cultural evolutions that have accompanied the
co-operative movement over many decades. Much of the success of these
agricultural co-operatives can be attributed to the availability of a favourable legal
and regulatory environment.
Key characteristics of co-operative legislation
While co-operative laws and regulations may differ from country to country,
there are a number of universal guiding principles for co-operatives that have been
codified by the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA). These include:
1) voluntary and open membership; 2) democratic member control; 3) member
economic participation; 4) autonomy and independence; 5) education, training and
information; 6) co-operation among co-operatives; and 7) concern for community
(ICA, 2014a). These fundamental principles are generally recognised by OECD
member countries and encapsulated within their laws and regulations for co-
operatives.
In addition to recognising these basic principles, co-operative legislation needs
to reflect the basic attributes and objectives of a co-operative. Co-operatives create
and maintain employment, often leading to far-reaching social and economic
improvements. The primary goal of a co-operative is to improve the welfare of its
members, and co-operatives therefore play an important role in balancing the needs
of members with the objective of profit maximisation. The core values underpinning
a co-operative movement include self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality,
equity and solidarity. There are significant differences between co-operatives,
corporations and non-profit organisations, and policies should be designed to reflect
the unique legal and juridical status of co-operatives. These differences are outlined
in Table 2 below:
50
Table 2. Differences between co-operatives, investor-owned corporations and non-
profit organisations
Co-operatives
Investor-owned
corporations
Non-profit
organisations
Ownership
Member-owned
Investor-owned
Generally not
“owned” by a person
or members
Control
Democratically
controlled; one-
member, one vote
basis; equal voice
regardless of their
equity share. Members
are involved in the day-
to-day business
operations and receive
services for their input.
Controlled by
shareholders
according to their
investment share.
Business decisions
and policy are made
by a board of
directors and
corporate officers.
May be controlled by
members who elect
a board of directors
or, in non-
membership
organisations, the
board of directors
may elect its own
successors. Control
is maintained by
those not receiving
the services.
Board
membership
and
compensation
Made up of co-op
members elected by
the members. Usually,
they do not work for the
co-op. Costs
reimbursed for board
meetings. Board
members usually serve
on an uncompensated,
volunteer basis.
Board is comprised
of a combination of
independent
directors,
management and
other directors with
financial or business
ties to the
organisation. Chief
executive officer may
serve as the board
chair. Significant
financial
compensation is
provided for board
service.
Board is generally
made up of people
who do not receive
the services, usually
chosen for
philanthropic or
political reasons.
Board members
usually serve on a
volunteer basis.
Board
nomination and
elections
Candidates nominated
by membership either
directly, or by a
nominating committee
made up of members.
Usually, any member
can nominate a director
candidate. Board is
elected by the
members on a one-
member, one vote
basis.
Candidates
nominated by the
board of directors
and management,
often by a
nominating
committee.
Shareholders have
limited ability to
nominate and elect
director candidates.
Either by members
or the board of
directors.
51
Accountability
The board is directly
accountable to
members through
nomination and election
procedures.
Board election and
nomination
procedures afford
little oversight
opportunity to
shareholders.
Shareholders are not
likely to be able to
remove board
members.
Generally
accountable to
members of the
organisation and
those who provide
the funding to the
organisation.
Earnings /
dividends
Any surplus revenues
(profits) earned by the
co-op are reinvested in
the business and/or
returned to members
based on how much
business they
conducted with the co-
op that year. Many co-
ops are obligated to
return a portion of their
“surplus revenues” to
members each year.
Members share losses
and earnings.
Profits returned to
shareholders based
on ownership share.
Corporations are
generally not
obligated to pay out
dividends. Timing
and amount of
dividend pay-out are
determined by the
board of directors.
Re-invest any profits
they make in their
public benefit
purpose and their
own operations.
Purpose /
motivation
Maximise member
services and
satisfaction.
Maximise
shareholder returns.
Primary motivation
is to serve in the
public interest.
Redistribute
resources to provide
educational,
charitable and other
services.
Source of
funds /
generation of
money
Raise resources
through the equity of
members: 1) direct
investment; 2) retained
margins; and 3) per-
unit capital retains
(capital investments
based on the number of
physical units handled
by the co-op or on a
percentage of sales).
Typically raise
money through
capital markets.
Typically funded by
donations from the
private or public
sector or the
government. Tax-
exempt.
Community
Promote and assist
community
development.
May engage in
selected community
philanthropic
activities.
Serve as a
mechanism for
collective action
based on a common
good.
52
Source: ICA (2014b), Factsheet: Differences between Co-operatives, Corporations and Non-Profit
Organisations,
ICA,
Geneva,
http://ica.coop/sites/default/files/Factsheet%20-
%20Differences%20between%20Coops%20Corps%20and%20NFPs%20-%20US%20OCDC%20-
%202007.pdf
, accessed September 2014.
The International Labour Organization’s (ILO) Guidelines for Cooperative
Legislation (Henrÿ, 2012) provides a comprehensive set of recommendations on the
elements needed to establish an enabling environment conducive to the formation
and growth of co-operatives. A frequent concern that arises amongst policy makers
is the choice between a single law on co-operatives, and several laws to regulate the
various different types of co-operatives. While there is no strict rule,
4
having one
law for all types of co-operatives offers a number of advantages. In particular, a
single law encompassing all of the different types of co-operatives is likely to reduce
bureaucracy and government intervention, promote autonomy, decrease
fragmentation and ultimately strengthen the co-operative movement (Henrÿ, 2012).
Taxation of co-operatives
Agricultural co-operatives are an effective means of reducing the size of the
informal sector, by encouraging unregistered small-scale producers to join the
formal economy. Effective taxation policies can encourage the formation of new co-
operatives, thereby reducing instances of tax evasion. Conversely, poorly designed
tax policies can lead to double taxation and a higher tax burden for farmers, thereby
discouraging farmers from joining co-operatives.
Well-designed tax policies for co-operatives should aim to create the conditions
for equal treatment of co-operatives and other commercial entities. Taxation laws
should therefore differentiate between “profit” and “surplus”. Co-operatives are
typically unable to know in advance how much to pay producers for outputs or how
much to charge producers for inputs. To account for market price risks, a margin is
usually added to initial transactions with members. At the end of the financial year, a
part of the accrued surplus may be distributed to members in the form of “patronage
refunds”, in proportion to their use of the co-operative’s services. This payment
constitutes an adjustment in the co-operative’s costs, and should not be considered
as part of the taxable income (Henrÿ, 2012).
Table 3 outlines the process for calculation of the taxable income of a typical
marketing co-operative and an input supply co-operative. After accounting for the
initial transaction with members, operating costs and the distribution of patronage
refunds, the co-operative may be left with some additional surplus. This surplus is
typically transferred to a reserve fund, which is liable for taxation at the standard
53
corporate tax rate. This practice is observed in a number of OECD member
countries, including the United States and the Netherlands.
Table 3. Calculation of taxable income for an agricultural marketing co-operative and
an input supply co-operative
Marketing co-operative
Input supply co-operative
–
Costs (incl. risk margin):
Initial payment to members
(dividends)
Operating costs of the co-
operative
+
Revenues (incl. risk margin):
Initial payment received from
members for purchases of
inputs
+
Revenues:
Sale of members’ products on
the market
–
Costs:
Payments to wholesale input
suppliers
Operating costs of the co-
operative
=
Gross income (surplus/deficit)
=
Gross income (surplus/deficit)
–
Distribution of surplus/deficit
“Patronage refund” payment
to/deduction from members in
proportion to use of co-
operative services
–
Distribution of surplus/deficit
“Patronage refund” payment
to/deduction from members in
proportion to use of co-
operative services
=
Transfer to reserve fund and other
funds
=
Transfer to reserve fund and other
funds
Source:
Lerman, Z. (2013), “Cooperative development in Central Asia”,
Policy Studies on Rural
Transition, No. 2013-4, FAO Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest.
In many countries, small farmers are exempt from a range of taxes, including
income tax and VAT (Millns, 2013). In order to create a level playing field,
therefore, co-operatives should benefit from the same tax exemptions that are
offered to small-scale producers. To do otherwise would implicitly discourage
farmers from joining or establishing a co-operative. This principle has recently been
adopted by a number of countries in the former Soviet Union (FSU): in Georgia,
Kyrgyzstan and the Republic of Moldova, agricultural co-operatives are exempt
from paying VAT on transactions with members. In Ukraine, agricultural co-
operatives are allowed to accumulate “agricultural VAT”, which can be reinvested
into the co-operative.
Co-operative taxation policies may differ across countries, depending on the
government priorities and specific local environment. Some countries provide
specific tax incentives to encourage the development of co-operatives. Box 1
examines various aspects of the legal and fiscal framework for the case of the
Autonomous Province of Trentino, Italy.
54
Box 1. Fiscal and financial incentives for agricultural co-operatives in Trentino, Italy
Situated in the north of Italy, the Autonomous Province of Trentino provides an
instructive case study for the development of a highly successful co-operative movement.
Traditionally, the region’s economy was dominated by subsistence
-oriented agriculture,
and suffered from a number of competitive disadvantages owing to the mountainous nature
of the surrounding territory (high rates of poverty, fragmented land ownership, low
productivity levels and absence of innovation).
The first agricultural co-operatives in Trentino were established in the 1890s, and
have since evolved into a competitive and dynamic co-operative movement. Although land
holdings remain highly fragmented (54.2% of farmers own less than 1 hectare of land),
today many farmers are only engaged part-time in production, and form part of a highly
coherent, competitive, vertically integrated system. Agricultural co-operatives in Trentino
specialise in the production of specific commodities (mostly milk, cheese, wine and
apples), and are organised in a multi-level structure that includes 508 first level co-
operatives, 19 consortia and a single Trentino Federation of Co-operatives. In 2013,
agricultural co-operatives accounted for almost 90% of production, employed 20 015
people and had 289 069 active members (out of 530 000 inhabitants).
The Italian Civil Code and tax legislation form the foundations of the co-operative
movement in Trentino. According to the Civil Code, co-operatives are distinguished by their
contribution to socio-economic development, through the principles of mutual ownership
and operation. The legal framework defines that co-operatives must conduct a minimum of
50% of transactions with their members in order to be eligible for tax exemptions and other
benefits. A minimum of 80% of the co-
operative’s surplus must be invested into a reserve
fund, and these funds cannot be divided amongst the members. This policy was
deliberately introduced to strengthen the capitalisation of co-operatives, whilst encouraging
local development and job creation. Agricultural co-operatives benefit from a 70% tax
exemption on their reserves, while the remaining 30% is subject to the standard corporate
tax rate.
The provincial government of Trentino has significant legislative, administrative and
financial autonomy, which allows for the provision of a number of incentives to support
local development through co-operatives. Some examples include:
Достарыңызбен бөлісу: |