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ing the workers’ qualifications and following
the modern technology development – all
these items promote “a safe place”.
We do a community while working and
socializing together. The work conditions and
supplies could be perfect and well-planned,
but the staff could be out of place and badly-
qualified, and vice versa. There can be a few
places where a person can feel free, accepted
and supported, so this place is built by two
parties.
Power has always been a cornerstone of
any community, government, or a tribe. Our
society has developed from the primitive level
to high-tech civilization. Early aristocracy and
nobility were all-powerful and almighty, and
only the chosen candidates were empowered
by them. Social status and material welfare
were the main criteria to get the right in the
government.
On the contrary, today power is in the
hands of well-educated, responsible, and hard-
working people. Still financial status is not
odd here. Honest government officials are not
corrupted and spoilt by the authority. Any
leader chooses their own group of followers
and supporters, who must prove their worth
and reliability. So the first thing to do is to set
a number of criteria of workers’ empower-
ment.
Secondly, giving a chance and monitor-
ing your employees work are vital. Empow-
erment is not appropriate for everyone. Theo-
retically, everyone can be a potential leader,
but in practice it is not so easy to do. Some are
good at management; some are good at obey-
ing and being directed. Meanwhile, some
workers can be over-confident or ambitious
and, having obtained some part of power, they
could fail to realize it properly and end up
damaging the system.
Empowerment is really controversial
and tricky. The leader should bear in mind all
the consequences (good or bad) and changes
that can be caused by the wrong or right ac-
tion. Keeping one’s power depends on many
factors: work conditions, qualifications, the
personnel, etc. Personal reputation and the
people who support you, the actions which
correspond to your words – all these things
provide a long life for one’s power.
Governors can be dismissed; bosses –
fired; new governors and freshmen bosses can
be chosen and hired. One must not overdo
with being all-powerful. Power can bring you
down to the earth or promote you to the top
management, if you know how to deal with it.
“Vision is a wise understanding of the
future” (Longman Dictionary). There are pro-
fessions where you keep studying everything
and every time. You find yourself to be a con-
stant learner of life and work. Our beginner’s
wisdom of seeing the present and the future
allows us to compare it with the previous ex-
perience and not to repeat the same mistakes.
Our vision is closely connected with our
great hope and belief in all the best qualities of
our students and colleagues. These are hon-
esty, responsibility, kind-heartedness, intelli-
gence, etc.
Our vision is that proper education is
not for unworthy students. A good number of
students study only because of the diploma,
but not knowledge. Well-off parents and good
connections provide them with all the things
they need. So they don’t value teachers and
their work.
Meanwhile, worthy students achieve
everything by themselves. They know the
value of their work and education. Such stu-
dents appreciate both teacher’s work and ef-
forts. We had the same situation, but students’
values and needs were quite different.
Teacher’s status was indisputable and highly-
appreciated. But today the students can quarrel
with their teacher and complain about him/her
to the dean or other teachers directly. Also a
lot of work was written down but not copied
from the book and clued in the note-book.
Students visited libraries and museums oftener
than they do today. These and many other
points can cause the clash of opinions and cul-
tures.
Our vision implies molding of students’
minds into complete understanding of the sig-
nificance of getting education. They should
study in the very way in order not to feel
ashamed in the future. We work hard to
achieve our goal and expect the same from our
students. Every now and then we speak to our
students and try to make them get our mes-
sage: getting good education requires constant
hard work and attention. The main difficulties
can be clash or difference in views and values,
authority distance and students’ empower-
ment.
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It needs time and long hours of discus-
sion in order to find compromise between two
generations. At our university authority dis-
tance is very narrow. The deans are always
available and open for our students. They usu-
ally try to help and support then in any diffi-
cult situation. A lot of students feel absolutely
free and empowered, so they do not pay too
much respect for teacher’s work.
Our vision is to become one team where
everyone can be tolerant and responsive to
others, where the power can be equally dis-
tributed and all the team members would have
the same common expectations from each
other. One person makes the difference.
In order to build a good community we
should have supporters and followers of our
vision. United we rise, divided we fall. Every-
one should follow one common mission, the
wise vision of which will bring us a safe and
flawless future.
As an example of local leader and
his/her employees we can take head doctor’s
status and their staff. The longer they work the
stronger and more reliable their relations are.
One team was asked to answer the questions
about their need analysis and job satisfaction.
Their work place was situated in the
outskirts of town. It was a hospital the main
function of which was to produce health care
service for local and city patients. Twenty nine
people worked for one common goal – to cure
people. The main mission of the organization
was to take a pro-active approach in making
the population healthy. As a leader, head of
the department, the head doctor’s main re-
sponsibility was to control and monitor the
work of the medical establishment, to make up
and review reports; carry out health care ser-
vice, vaccination and patients’ examination.
Their branch held a medical sanitary
service. It may sound surprising, but they did
not have any written values. There was only
one unwritten value that was personal health.
To improve all the necessary qualifications the
medical employees were sent to complete dif-
ferent business trips or academic courses usu-
ally within the borders of their country. More-
over, there were various programs for work-
ers’ medical examination and further treat-
ment. A head doctor combined both manager’s
and leader’s qualities. Top administration of
the hospital required good managerial skills,
whilst the co-workers saw them as a good
leader who could always encourage and in-
spire them. Education and professionalism
help to manage and cope with the business
they are in. If we take interpersonal relation-
ship at work, doctors work as servant leaders.
People and health care service are the
main working issues that stimulates the gov-
ernmental work. It is always difficult to be just
and fair to patients and colleagues if they have
got any disagreement. Doctors are not highly
paid in Kazakhstan in comparison with other
countries. That is why if money was the only
advantage in this profession, doctors would
not have been working so long on one place.
Being a leader and a manager is chal-
lenging, rewarding and thought-provoking.
Leaders are empowered people who can direct
others and control the activities of theirs.
Two sheets with answers were analyzed
and compared. The results of the question-
naires were almost the same. According to the
employees' answers, the main role of their or-
ganization is medical service that is appropri-
ate and urgent. The main values are supposed
to be competence, integrity and clarity, under-
standing of the thing you do. The majority of
people are fond of helping people, curing and
getting success and positive result in the end.
In their turn, the managers are able to organize
the work, increase its' level, teamwork, follow
all the rules and regulations of behavior, that is
adequate to the patients. Most workers see
their work place as a safe place for them, the
place where they can speak their mind without
being judged. They are free to share their
views and empowered to realize them. Organ-
izational culture and business promotion help
the workers to develop on their own. To sum-
marize all the said, I can say that people and
their professionalism cannot be separated from
personal features are the main values and is-
sues for the very type of the company.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Academic Leader, Magna Publications,
Madison, Wisc. Phone (800) 433-0499. An
outrageously expensive monthly newsletter
for academic deans and department chairs,
with news briefs and occasional cases. Lynn
Little's columns justify the cost.
2. Conway, John B. On Being a Department
Head: A Personal View, American Mathe-
МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНАЯ КОММУНИКАЦИЯ И ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕВОДА
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matical Society, 1996. A short book with
advice delivered in a witty style; for exam-
ple, "Our first piece of advice on ethics is
that you should have some."
3. Eble, Kenneth E. The Art of Administra-
tion, Jossey-Bass, 1978. A pleasant com-
panion to The Craft of Teaching, also writ-
ten by Eble. Combines down-to-earth ad-
vice with calls for department chairs to be a
"visible and vocal presence," articulating
educational values and ideals. Somewhat
dated.
4. Hecht, Irene W. D., Higgerson, Mary Lou,
Gmelch, Walter H., and Tucker, Allan. The
Department Chair As Academic Leader,
Oryx Press, 1999. Identifies new roles for
department chairs because of changing stu-
dent demographics, the need for collabora-
tion and collective effort, and the contem-
porary emphasis on student learning.
Mostly descriptive, rather than prescriptive.
Good advice on performance counseling
(performance reviews) and on strategic
planning.
5. Higgerson, Mary Lou. Communication
Skills for Department Chairs, Anker Pub-
lishing, 1996. Not just communication
skills. Includes chapters on departmental
culture, performance counseling, managing
conflict, implementing change, and working
with external parties. Numerous case stud-
ies.
УДК 811.161
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
Belyova T.
Actually, the process of teaching and
learning a foreign language unites the pres-
ence of another culture as well as contact with
Otherness. An encounter with otherness –
whether national, racial, or ethnic – is experi-
enced as defiance to the existing beliefs, val-
ues, and behaviors of people. This challenge
may have a twofold effect, leading either to a
confrontational relationship with other, in
which self and other are experienced as in-
compatible; or leading to a relationship of ac-
ceptance where self and other are trying to
negotiate a cultural platform that is satisfac-
tory to all parties involved.
Establishing open-mindedness, toler-
ance of difference, and respect for self and
other is now widely accepted as among the
most effective ways of promoting intercultural
communication in the foreign language
classes. Although most teachers do not deny
the importance of intercultural communication
in their language course curriculum, few
teachers actively value whether their students
are approaching their intercultural learning
goals or not. The problem may be due to the
fact that teachers are uncertain as to how in-
tercultural communicative competence should
be evaluated. It is necessary to specify the
ways of assessing students’ intercultural learn-
ing.
Intercultural competence is in plain
terms the ability to be effective when interact-
ing between cultures. It is a rather elusive set
of qualities that enable a person to success-
fully navigate through differences they en-
counter in interactions with others in contexts
such as business, education, and daily interac-
tions. Because competence is very necessary
in a world, it is something that scholars in
various disciplines have researched for dec-
ades, but without agreement about what it is,
what it is made up of, how to value it, or how
to develop it.
Intercultural ability, or ICC for short,
has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.
Early in the history of scholarship on the con-
struct, the conceptualizations varied according
to the researcher’s theoretical orientation or
specific sample being studied. Some of these
concepts were named as cross-cultural adjust-
ment, cross-cultural recast, intercultural un-
derstanding,
overseas
success,
personal
growth or adjustment, cross-cultural effective-
ness, and satisfaction with overseas experience
[1, 66-78]. In the last two decades, there has
been a growing unanimity on the conceptuali-
zation of ICC competence. As a reflection of
this consensus and for the purposes of this es-
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say, there are a number of implications pro-
voked in this conceptualization.
The representations of culture have un-
dergone considerable change in the field of
ICC scholarship. Some researchers take a
more traditional approach at defining culture
and typically use attributes such as race, na-
tionality, ethnicity, or geographic region to
operationalized culture. Other scholars point
on culture as a “learned set of shared interpre-
tations about beliefs, values, and norms, which
affect the behaviors of a relatively large group
of people” [2, 30]. With this shift of focus, the
operationalization of culture is not where
members were born or the color of their skin,
but on the commonalities in and interpreta-
tions of their behaviors. Taking this tack, op-
erationalization of culture could include the
elderly, singles with physical disabilities, indi-
viduals who are deaf, sexual orientations, or
genders [3]. Certainly, the latter approach
opens more sub-populations to investigation;
however the problem becomes one of deter-
mining sufficient distinctive features to de-
lineate different cultures.
A number of theoretical solutions have
been suggested to help resolve this problem.
One possible solution comes from Gudykunst
and Lim (1986) who suggest qualitative dis-
tinctions based upon the peculiarity of indi-
vidual versus group attribute s in influencing
the nature of singles’ attributions and their
communication. If there is a greater advantage
of single characteristics, the communication is
considered more interpersonal; while if group
attribute s predominates, the communication is
considered intergroup. Another possible solu-
tion is the reliance on cultural dimensions; for
example, singleism/ collectivism, independent
or interdependent self- constructs, and high or
low power distance. With the use of these cul-
tural dimensions, the operationalization of cul-
ture moves from a more typological and dis-
crete format to one that is based on degrees of
differences in cultural dimensions. Finally, a
third solution involves the symbolic interac-
tionism principle of self-referencing, namely,
the operationalization of culture is based on
one’s own self-identity [4, 99-120]. With this
approach, it becomes more important to meas-
ure how communicators define their own iden-
tities, be those identities ethnic, social, or cul-
tural. What criteria should be used to judge
ICC ability? A growing number of communi-
cation scholars have embraced Spitzberg’s
answer to this question: “Efficient communi-
cation is interaction that is perceived as effec-
tive in fulfilling certain rewarding goals in a
way that is also appropriate to the context in
which the interaction occurs” [5, 68]. That
means that competent communication consists
of behaviors which are regarded as effective
and appropriate. Effective communication
means that people are able to achieve desired
personal outcomes. So, competent communi-
cators should be able to control and manipu-
late their social environment to obtain those
goals. This presumes that efficient communi-
cators are able to identify their goals, assess
the resources necessary to obtain those goals,
accurately predict the other communicator’s
responses, choose workable communication
strategies, enact those communication strate-
gies, and, finally, accurately assess the results
of the interaction [6].
The two criteria of effectiveness and
appropriateness combine to influence the qual-
ity of the interaction. In his recent formulation
on ICC competence, Spitzberg (2000) sug-
gested four possible interaction styles that may
result from the combinations of the extremes
of the two criteria:
1) Minimizing interaction is both inap-
propriate and ineffective, and would obviously
be of a low communicative quality.
2) Sufficient interaction is appropriate
but ineffective, that is, it is highly accommo-
dating and does nothing objectionable, but
also accomplishes no personal goal s. Here,
Spitzberg suggested that the sufficing style is
sufficient to meet the basic demands of the
context, but accomplishes nothing more.
3) Maximizing communication occurs
when an individual is effective in achieving
personal goals, but at the cost of being highly
inappropriate contextually. This style may in-
clude verbal aggression, unscrupulous behav-
ior, deception, the infringement of others’
rights, or the degradation of others.
4) Optimizing communication occurs
when communicators simultaneously achieve
their personal goals and fulfill the normative
expectations of the context. While this two-by-
two analysis of discrete, binary combinations
of the two criteria may be a bit simplistic, it
helps to provide insight into the dialectics of
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the ability criteria in social episodes.
We achieve the active aspect of our rep-
resentations of inter cultural ability. When
communicators interact, they are co-orienting
and coordinating their behaviors (verbal and
nonverbal) to accomplish social functions,
obtain personal goals, and conform to the
normative expectations of the situation. To the
extent that the communicators do these activi-
ties effectively and appropriately, they are
considered competent communicators.
There has been considerable variation in
the focus on communicative behaviors across
investigations on ICC competence. In an early
study, Ruben identified seven dimensions of
interaction related to one’s effectiveness in
overseas assignments: display of respect, in-
teraction posture, and orientation to knowl-
edge, empathy, role behavior, interaction
management, and tolerance for ambiguity.
These general behaviors were subsequently
operationalized in both self-report and ob-
server measures, and applied to the evaluation
of overseas technical assistance personnel [7,
15-48], Japanese student sojourners, and ICC
workshop participants.
In another early study, Hammer,
Gudykunst, and Wiseman examined the inter-
cultural effectiveness among American so-
journers in terms of their educational experi-
ences in other nations. Based upon a measure
consisting of 24 general behaviors posited to
be instrumental in one’s intercultural effec-
tiveness, a factor analysis of the sojourners’
responses determined three basic factors: abil-
ity to deal with psychological stress, ability to
communicate effectively, and ability to estab-
lish interpersonal relationships. [8, 11-16].
ICC ability is not something inherent
within us, nor does it occur accidentally.
Rather, there are necessary conditions that
must exist before we are consciously and
compatibly competent in our intercultural
communications.
Spitzberg
and
Cupach
(1984) singled out three conditions: knowl-
edge, motivation, and deftness. If an interact-
ing is lacking one of these conditions, the like-
lihood of competent intercultural interaction is
significantly diminished.
Knowledge refers to our awareness or
understanding of requisite information and
actions to be intercultural competent. A
knowledgeable communicator needs informa-
tion about the people, the communication
rules, the context, and the normative expecta-
tions governing the interaction with the mem-
ber of the other culture. Without this informa-
tion, the communicator will invariably make
misattributions, choose incorrect communica-
tion strategies, violate rules of etiquette, or
cause the loss of face for self or other. Further,
the unknowing communicator may not be able
to correctly describe the reasons for the errors
or be able to correct them. To obtain the
needed knowledge to competently communi-
cate, singles need to be sensitive to the feed-
back from others as well as be cognitively
flexible to accommodate that feedback.
Motivation refers to the set of feelings,
intentions, needs, and drives associated with
the anticipation of or actual engagement in
intercultural interaction. Factors such as anxi-
ety, perceived social distance, attraction, eth-
nocentrism, and prejudice can influence an
individual’s decision to communicate with
another. If our fears, dislikes, and anxieties
predominating our affect toward the other, we
will have negative motivation, and we will be
likely to avoid the interaction, even if we feel
we have the requisite knowledge and deftness
to perform.
Skills refer to the actual performance of
the behaviors felt to be effective and appropri-
ate in the communication context. For Spitz-
berg (2000), skills must be repeatable and
goal-oriented. If a person accidentally pro-
duces a behavior that is perceived as compe-
tent, this would not be adequate, since the per-
son may not be able to replicate the same be-
havior with the same effect. The person needs
to be able to perform the script fluently and
with cause (i.e., an appropriate rationale for its
performance). This brings us to the notion that
deftness must be goal-oriented. There must be
some teleological basis for the performance, or
else it is just behavior, not skilled behavior.
The goals may be personal, dyadic, social, or
contextual.
Much acquisition of ICC is tutored and
takes place within an educational setting. The
formal education with specific attention to the
intercultural aspects is politically, religiously
and socially influenced, which at times and in
some places impedes the process of communi-
cative language learning and teaching. How-
ever, there are some general goals set for ICC
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