Кесте 12.2 Педагогикалық зерттеу ретіндегі іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу
Сәйкесінше, тәжірибені жетілдіру үдерісі ретіндегі іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу кейде
атеориялық ретінде есептеледі. Дәстүрлі тәртіптік теория шын мәнісінде
мұғалімдердің негізгі артықшылығы болып саналмайды (тарау 1), дегенмен мектептегі
зерттеуді жүргізу кезінде эксперимент шын мәнісінде өзгеретіндей болуы үшін,
сыныптағы жағдайды онтологиялық, эпистемиологиялық және әдістемелік түсінуді
пайдалану маңызды. Эллиотттың (1991) пайымдауынша, академиялық теоретиктер
ойлану үшін әдістер мен ресурстарды беретін болса, зерттеу үдерісі барысында
тәжірибені дамыту мәселені тудыру және зерттеуші сарапшылар тарапынан дайын
теорияны қолдану арқылы жүзеге асады. Басқаша айтқанда, зерттеуші мұғалім
«басқалардың өзіндік теориясына» жүгінеді (Somekh, 2005: 260). Осы басқа теориялар,
әдеттегідей, мектептегі мұғалімдер университеттік академиктермен бірге жұмыс
істеген кезде туындайды.
Кесте 12.2 Педагогикалық зерттеу ретіндегі іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу
ƏӘдеттегі сынып тəәжірибесі
Педагогикалық зерттеу ретіндегі іс-
əәрекеттегі зерттеу
Педагогика бойынша зерттеу
Р
өл
Тəәжірибе - алдыңғы педагогикалық
зерттеу немесе педагогика бойынша
зерттеу барысында алынуы мүмкін
немесе алынбауы мүмкін білімді
пайдаланудың кəәдімгі үдерісі болып
табылады.
Мұғалімнің тəәжірибедегі, сонымен
қатар зерттеудегі іс-əәрекеті.
Тəәжірибені зерттеуші қолдаушы
қаржысы бар зерттеуші.
Мұғалім сыныптағы жағдайға əәрекет
етеді
Мұғалім өзгерісті болжайды, алайда іс-
əәрекет зерттеу нəәтижелерін талдау
арқылы алынған түсінікке негізделген
Зерттеушілер алдын-ала анықталған
қатаң əәдістемелік хаттаманы
пайдаланады
ƏӘдеттегі тəәжірибе машықтанушы
мұғалімнің бірден-бір міндеті болып
табылады
Мұғалім өз сыныбындағы іс-əәрекеттегі
зерттеуге қатысады, алайда жұмысқа
ынтымақтастық жасай отырып бөгде
тəәжірибені тартады
Зерттеу, əәдеттегідей, тəәжірибені
зерттеуші бөгде адамдар тобымен
жүргізіледі
Үд
ері
с
ƏӘдеттегі тəәжірибе шынайы, алайда
зерттелмейді
ƏӘрекет етуші тəәжірибенің кейбір
сипатын өзгерту арқылы
эксперименталды зерттеу сыныпты
ішкі жағынан қолға алу болып
табылады
Зерттеу бөгде кісінің пікіріне сəәйкес
эксперименталды, сонымен бірге
терең ізденіс болуы мүмкін
ƏӘдеттегі тəәжірибе, əәдеттегідей,
үдерістерді, құндылықтар мен
тиімділікті терең зерттеуге жол
бермейді
Іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу – бұл анықталған
мəәселеден басталатын жетілдіру
үдерісі болып табылады
Педагогика бойынша зерттеу белгілі
бір жоспарға сүйенеді жəәне жалпы
алғанда сыртқы демеушілермен
бекітіледі
Ағымдағы əәдеттегі тəәжірибе,
əәдеттегідей, тек қатысушылармен
жүргізіледі
Іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу сырттай
қарайтын тəәжірибе
Тəәжірибе – бұл зерттеу нысаны
М
ақ
са
ты
ƏӘдеттегі тəәжірибенің негізгі критериі –
бұл оның жақсы жұмыс жасайтыны
Іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу – бұл неліктен
белгілі бір нəәрсенің жұмыс
жасамайтынын анықтау жəәне оны
түзетуге талпыныс жасау
Теорияны түсіндіру мен құру үшін
концептуалды жүйелер құру
ƏӘдеттегі тəәжірибе барысында алынған
білім белгілі бір мұғалім бойында
сақталады
Іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу барысында
алынған білім мектеп ішінде
таратылуы немесе желі жəәне
педагогикалық ұйымдар арқылы
таратылуы тиіс
Білім педагогика саласындағы басқа
зерттеушілердің пайдасы үшін
жарияланады
Сəәйкесінше, тəәжірибені жетілдіру үдерісі ретіндегі іс-əәрекеттегі зерттеу кейде атеориялық ретінде
есептеледі. Дəәстүрлі тəәртіптік теория шын мəәнісінде мұғалімдердің негізгі артықшылығы болып
саналмайды (тарау 1), дегенмен мектептегі зерттеуді жүргізу кезінде эксперимент шын мəәнісінде
өзгеретіндей болуы үшін, сыныптағы жағдайды онтологиялық, эпистемиологиялық жəәне əәдістемелік
түсінуді пайдалану маңызды. Эллиотттың (1991) пайымдауынша, академиялық теоретиктер ойлану
үшін əәдістер мен ресурстарды беретін болса, зерттеу үдерісі барысында тəәжірибені дамыту мəәселені
тудыру жəәне зерттеуші сарапшылар тарапынан дайын теорияны қолдану арқылы жүзеге асады.
Басқаша айтқанда, зерттеуші мұғалім «басқалардың өзіндік теориясына» жүгінеді (Somekh, 2005: 260).
Осы басқа теориялар, əәдеттегідей, мектептегі мұғалімдер университеттік академиктермен бірге жұмыс
істеген кезде туындайды.
What Is Educational Action Research?
648
Кәсіби оқыту
Кәсіби оқыту негізінен мұғалім жұмыс істейтін мәнмәтінде құрылған. Бұл әдеттегідей
сынып, ол өз кезегінде, жалпы мектептің мәдениетін, мектеп орналасқан қоғам мен
қауымдастықтың күшті әсерін басынан өткізеді. Сондықтан мұғалімнің өз сыныбы өзі
жұмыс істейтін белгілі бір мәдени мәнмәтінде, сонымен бірге сол уақыттағы белгілі
бір саяси мәнмәтінде тұрғандығы маңызды.
Тәжірибе жасау мәнмәтініндегі мұғалімдердің күнделікті тәжірибесі олардың
түсінігін қалыптастырады, ал олардың түсінігі олардың тәжірибесін қалыптастырады,
сондықтан егер тәжірибені меңгеру дамуды білдірсе, онда осы тамырын тереңге
жайған ойларды да бағалау маңызды.
Мұғалімдер мектептегі зерттеуді жүргізу арқылы өз сыныптары туралы
мәліметтер алады. Көрсетіліп отырғандай, ықпалдастырылған оқыту мен іс-әрекет
жасау айналымдары мұғалімнің оқытуына әсер етеді және бұл жағдай оқушылардың
оқу тәжірибесін жетілдіреді. Ұлыбританияда мұны Frost (2003), Opfer and Ped-
der (2010), Wilson and Demetriou (2007) сияқты авторлардың жұмысы көрсетіп
отырса, Жаңа Зеландия (Timperley et al., 2007) мен АҚШ-та да (Desimone et al.,
2002) ұқсас жұмыстар жүргізілген. Тимперли зерттеу айналымы мен білім алумен
қатар осы ұстанымдарды ұстанады. Қорапшалардағы төрт сұрақтар мұғалімдер мен
басшылардың көзқарасын негізге ала отырып құрылымдалған, өйткені олар жауап
беруі тиіс. Алайда болжанып отырғандай, мұғалім осы үшін қолдау табады: зерттеу
нәтижелері көрсетіп отырғандай, сыртқы сараптаманы тарту осындай зерттеу
түрін тарту және мұғаліммен білім алу үшін ерекше маңызды болуы мүмкін. Бұл
университеттік факультеттерде алынады.
12.2 сурет. Тимперлидің мұғалімдік зерттеу диаграммасы (2012)
Кəәсіби оқыту
Кəәсіби оқыту негізінен мұғалім жұмыс істейтін мəәнмəәтінде құрылған. Бұл əәдеттегідей сынып, ол өз
кезегінде, жалпы мектептің мəәдениетін, мектеп орналасқан қоғам мен қауымдастықтың күшті əәсерін
басынан өткізеді. Сондықтан мұғалімнің өз сыныбы өзі жұмыс істейтін белгілі бір мəәдени мəәнмəәтінде,
сонымен бірге сол уақыттағы белгілі бір саяси мəәнмəәтінде тұрғандығы маңызды.
Тəәжірибе жасау мəәнмəәтініндегі мұғалімдердің күнделікті тəәжірибесі олардың түсінігін
қалыптастырады, ал олардың түсінігі олардың тəәжірибесін қалыптастырады, сондықтан егер
тəәжірибені меңгеру дамуды білдірсе, онда осы тамырын тереңге жайған ойларды да бағалау
маңызды.
Мұғалімдер мектептегі зерттеуді жүргізу арқылы өз сыныптары туралы мəәліметтер алады.
Көрсетіліп отырғандай, ықпалдастырылған оқыту мен іс-əәрекет жасау айналымдары мұғалімнің
оқытуына əәсер етеді жəәне бұл жағдай оқушылардың оқу тəәжірибесін жетілдіреді. Ұлыбританияда мұны
Frost (2003), Opfer and Pedder (2010), Wilson and Demetriou (2007) сияқты авторлардың жұмысы
көрсетіп отырса, Жаңа Зеландия (Timperley et al., 2007) мен АҚШ-та да (Desimone et al., 2002) ұқсас
жұмыстар жүргізілген. Тимперли зерттеу айналымы мен білім алумен қатар осы ұстанымдарды
ұстанады. Қорапшалардағы төрт сұрақтар мұғалімдер мен басшылардың көзқарасын негізге ала
отырып құрылымдалған, өйткені олар жауап беруі тиіс. Алайда болжанып отырғандай, мұғалім осы
үшін қолдау табады: зерттеу нəәтижелері көрсетіп отырғандай, сыртқы сараптаманы тарту осындай
зерттеу түрін тарту жəәне мұғаліммен білім алу үшін ерекше маңызды болуы мүмкін. Бұл
университеттік факультеттерде алынады.
12.2 сурет. Тимперлидің мұғалімдік зерттеу диаграммасы (2012)
Оқушылар үшін құнды артықшылықтарды
қамтамасыз ету үшін мұғалімнің зерттеу жəәне
білім алу айналымы
Біздің
оқушыларымызға
қандай білім мен
дағдылар қажет?
Бізге
мұғалімдерге
қандай білім мен
дағдылар қажет?
Кəәсіби біліктілікті
тереңдету мен
дағдыларды
жетілдіру
Оқушыларды
жаңа оқыту
əәдістеріне тарту
Өзгерген іс-
əәрекеттердің
салдарлары
қандай?
What Is Educational Action Research?
649
Негізгі ойлар
Іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу – тәжірибені жетілдіру үшін іс-әрекеттегі
қалыптастыруға арналған іс-әрекетті зерттеудің мойындалған тәсілдерін
пайдалана отырып іздеу үлгісі болып табылады. Іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу
машықтанушы мамандарға өз тәжірибесін зияткерлік және моральдық
тұрғыдан бақылауға мүмкіндік береді. Зерттеуші мұғалімдер зерттеу әдістерін
қатаң сақтануы тиіс, өйткені олар басқа да академиялық зерттеу түрлері үшін
жалпы критерийлерге сәйкес келуі тиіс, яғни зерттеу сараптамалық бағадан
өтуі, ерекше болуы, маңызды болуы тиіс және мәліметтер негізделген
болуы және кез келген жасалған мәлімдемелер жиналған мәліметтермен
расталған болуы тиіс.
Рефлексияға арналған сұрақтар
1 Педагогикалық зерттеуді педагогикалық зерттеу жұмысы деп есептеуге
болады ма?
2 Осы жерде қарастырылған іс-әрекеттегі зерттеу үдерісімен http://www.
education.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/helen-timperley Тимперлидің «Кәсіби оқыту
үшін сыныпта дәлелдемелерді пайдалану» ұстанымы қалай байланысады?
Қосымша оқу үшін
Altrichter, H., Feldman, A., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (2007) Teachers Investigate Their
Work: An Introduction to Action Research Across the Professions (2nd edn). London:
Routledge.
Baumfield, V., Hall, E. and Wall, K. (2008) Action Research in the Classroom. London:
Sage.
Herr, K. and Anderson, G.L. (2005) The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students
and Faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2011) All You Need to Know About Action Research (2nd
edn). London: Sage.
Stenhouse, L. (1985) Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of Lawrence
Stenhouse. London: Heinemann.
Somekh, B. (2005) Action Research: A Methodology for Change and Development (Doing
Qualitative in Educational Settings Series). Maidenhead: Mcgraw-Hill.
How To Do Action Research
650
How To Do Action Research
651
HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH
ELAINE WILSON
CHAPTER 13
Chapter overview
This chapter will provide a step-by-step guide to carrying out school-based action
research. Each stage will be exemplified using an actual published example of a
classroom teacher’s research to change practice. The researcher’s questions and data
collection process will be elaborated on to illustrate each stage of the process.
How To Do Action Research
652
MAKING THE COMMITMENT TO ENQUIRY
The first step in the process of doing action research is to identify a classroom issue you
are concerned about and want to change (see Figure 15.1). The first stage starts with asking
questions about things happening in classrooms that others might take for granted. At a very
basic level this might be about finding out who is not answering questions in lessons or not
handing in homework and why this might be the case? Alternatively
the question might be spurred on by reading about ‘Learning without Limits’ and the
transformability potential of setting up a more inclusive classroom environment (Hart
et al., 2004). Questions such as these can be uncomfortable to ask. They may produce
even more discomforting answers. However unless and until teachers grapple with the
hard questions, it will be impossible to do very much to improve pupils’ learning in
classrooms. So, in short, action research is a way teachers will learn about themselves as
teachers and learn how to become critical thinkers about teaching and learning.
Figure 13.1
Doing action research
HOW DO TEACHERS DO ACTION RESEARCH?
The next sections will draw on an actual example of action research carried out in a
real classroom taken from a paper published in a peer- reviewed journal. The paper is:
Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’, Educational
Action Research, 17(2). 197 – 211. Short sections of the paper will be used to illustrate
the research process,Which and is broken down into stages.
HOW TO DO ACTION RESEARCH
243
granted. At a very basic level this might be about finding out who is not answering ques-
tions in lessons or not handing in homework and why this might be the case? Alternatively
the question might be spurred on by reading about ‘Learning without Limits’ and the
transformability potential of setting up a more inclusive classroom environment (Hart
et al., 2004). Questions such as these can be uncomfortable to ask. They may produce
even more discomforting answers. However unless and until teachers grapple with the
hard questions, it will be impossible to do very much to improve pupils’ learning in
classrooms. So, in short, action research is a way teachers will learn about themselves as
teachers and learn how to become critical thinkers about teaching and learning.
How do teachers do action research?
The next sections will draw on an actual example of action research carried out in a
real classroom taken from a paper published in a peer- reviewed journal. The paper is:
Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’, Educational
Action Research, 17(2). 197 – 211. Short sections of the paper will be used to illustrate
the research process,Which and is broken down into stages.
1 Identify the problem you want to solve in your classroom
Box 15.1 shows why and how the author identified the problem.
1.Identify area
of study
2. Design Study
3. Make sense of
the experience
4. Begin again
5. Improve
practice
Figure 15.1 Doing action research
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1 Identify the problem you want to solve in your classroom
Box 13.1
shows why and how the author identified the problem.
2 Define the purpose and clarify what form the intervention will take
Box 13.2
sets out the author’s rationale and what he proposed to do to rectify the problem.
Box 13.1 A real-world classroom-based problem
Action research is a form of action enquiry that employs recognized research
techniques to inform the action taken to improve practice. Action research
gives practitioners intellectual and moral control over their practice. Teacher
researchers must use research techniques rigorously so that they meet the
criteria common to other kinds of academic research, that is their research
must withstand peer review of procedures, be original, be significant, and the
data must be valid and any claims made must be warranted by the evidence
collected.
Box 13.2 Research rationale
‘Thus, I decided to conduct an action research project, starting from identifying
the needs of the educational practice. I aimed to develop pedagogic strategies
that would nurture student involvement in the learning process. As an action
researcher, I always considered practice and research to be mutually supportive,
and valued the dialogue between theory and practice (Johnson 2003, 370). For
this reason, I did not try to predetermine any strategies or curriculum content
in detail. On the contrary, in a framework of ‘praxiology’, I wished to invite the
students to take part in the selection and organising of the curriculum content,
focusing on the learning strategies as well as on a dynamic and reflective
pedagogical process (Elliott 1991, 15–16). In this way, it is not educational theory
that directs and dominates practice; rather, in an interpretative view of
educational theory and practice, ‘practical deliberation is informed … by the
practical exigencies of situation and it always requires critical appraisal and
mediation by the judgment of the actor’ (Carr and Kemmis 1986, 93)’. (Tsafos,
2009. 198)
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3 Action research is about intervening to make changes
Boxes 15.3a provides details of the classroom context and 15.3b shows how the author
planned to stage and carry out the intervention.
Box 13.3 (a) Action and knowledge: the intervention
‘I was the teacher of Modern and Ancient Greek Language and Literature of
the third grade of high school (age group 14–15 years) in a pilot High School
in Athens. Pilot High Schools are state-run and enjoy an excellent reputation,
both regarding knowledge offered and in terms of students gaining access to
tertiary education. The term ‘pilot’ is but a name, not designating any
experimentation.
The students’ parents are particularly interested in their children’s
achievements. This impeded the implementation of a research project, as
students were unfamiliar with such processes, while parents could react
adversely to the idea of experimentation. However, by choosing action research,
I provided students with a more active involvement in the research process.’
(Tsafos, 2009: 198)
Box 13.3 (b) Action and knowledge: general plan
‘Based on my teaching experience and on relevant bibliography, I decided to use
indexing as a teaching and learning method: The students, divided into teams,
undertake to deal with certain topics that are either mentioned explicitly or
implied in the text, and to collect data on these topics from all the teaching
units, for as long as the process lasts. Such topics could include: women, gods,
the political system, hospitality, costumes, and so forth. These are topics on
which taught literature expresses an opinion gradually; by continuously dealing
with them, students are better able to detect and process some basic ideological
parameters of the play.
So the students go through the text with a set of these categories against
which they collect information in order to form a general view of the ancient
Greek civilisation based on ancient Greek texts, become more familiar with the
texts, and practice a way of selecting and evaluating information’. (Tsafos,
2009: 199)
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4 Action research involves collecting empirical data in classrooms
Once the question has been decided, the next step is to consider how to answer this
and what sort of data to collect (Chapter 5). In this example the author has used a range
of data collection methods including interviews, surveys and classroom observation
(Box 13.4).
Box 13.4 Participatory and collaborative data collection methods
‘In order to collect the data and control the resulting findings intersubjectively,
I decided to invite to my classroom, as a critical friend and observer, the teacher
of another classroom of the same grade, with whom I enjoyed good collaboration.
We shared a common code, being fully aware of our differences. Thus, the
research material was collected from three sources, to ensure triangulation:
(a) Class teacher:
(i) Research journal and field notes, written after classroom interventions or
discussions with the critical friend and the students.
(ii) Recording of selected intervention extracts.
(b) Students:
(i) Semi-structured interview by the teacher/action-researcher and the critical
friend at the end of the process/research project.
(ii) Questionnaires after classroom interventions, including the questions:
• What kind of difficulties did you encounter while processing the indexing
topics?
• How would you characterise the process? (Indifferent, boring, interesting,
other.)
• What are your suggestions for its improvement?
• Student papers on the indexing topics.
(c) Critical friend:
(i) Observation of the activity and field notes on the process. (Tsafos,
2009: 200)
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THE ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE
Tsafos uses a Boomer et al. (1992) variant of the Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) cyclical
diagram Plan Act Observe Reflect Evaluate to explain the active research
process(Box 13.5).
Tsafos uses a Boomer et al. (1992) variant of the Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) cyclical
You can read how the author analyses and discusses his findings in the full paper:
Vassilis Tsafos (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action research project’,
Educational Action Research, 17(2): 197–211.
A FURTHER EXAMPLE OF A TEACHER DOING ACTION RESEARCH
Figure 15.2 shows an example to illustrate the stages involved in another action research
process. In this example, a secondary science teacher carried out action research in her
classroom.
The research was initiated by a secondary science teacher who was unhappy with
how science teaching was done in her school. She believed that the dominant styles
narrowed the curriculum and reduced science to a series of facts. She wanted to
improve her teaching by integrating a new approach called ‘How science works’. As a
curriculum project this was appropriate but as a research focus it was much too general
so the teacher first narrowed her focus to that of helping her students to structure
an argument.
The next stage involved further reconnaissance in the classroom to establish exactly
what was currently being done by her colleagues to help students understand the different
ways of thinking about complex controversial issues in the science curriculum. The
teacher also asked a colleague to observe her approach and she consulted the students
in her class. At this stage, the teacher also found it useful to broaden her thinking about
Box 15.5 Cyclic process
‘To be more specific, their (the students) active involvement in the research
was not triggered by their research interest, but by their desire to negotiate the
curriculum, as they felt it concerned them personally. Of course, according to
Boomer, the stages of a curriculum process, where negotiation has a predominant
role, show great similarities with the steps of an action research cycle:
Planning Negotiating Teaching and learning Performing
Evaluating. (Boomer et al. 1992, 35)’ (Tsafos, 2009: 207)
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Figure 13.2
Action-research cycles
PLANNING THE ACTION RESEARCH
Having narrowed her focus, the teacher arrived at a manageable research question for
her pilot intervention. This was: ‘Will my students be able to structure an argument better
if I teach them explicitly how to analyse the issues?’ The next stage involved not only plan-
ning how she would change her practice to help the students to analyse complex
issues, but also how she would analyse the data collected.
ACTING OUT AND OBSERVING THE INTERVENTION
The teacher subdivided her research question into two parts. She looked first for
evidence of the students’ ability to analyse issues, and secondly at how her students
teaching controversial issues through reading published accounts in the literature and
by discussing this with other colleagues beyond the science department. As a result, the
teacher refined her area of interest to argumentation in science lessons and decided that
the students’ problem may be aggravated by not knowing how to analyse the issues sur-
rounding the complex contexts she was teaching. The literature search and discussion
with colleagues outside her immediate environment had been crucial in helping her to
restate the original problem.
SCHOOL-BASED RESEARCH
248
teaching controversial issues through reading published accounts in the literature and
by discussing this with other colleagues beyond the science department. As a result, the
teacher refined her area of interest to argumentation in science lessons and decided that
the students’ problem may be aggravated by not knowing how to analyse the issues sur-
rounding the complex contexts she was teaching. The literature search and discussion
with colleagues outside her immediate environment had been crucial in helping her to
restate the original problem.
Planning the action research
Having narrowed her focus, the teacher arrived at a manageable research question for
her pilot intervention. This was: ‘Will my students be able to structure an argument bet-
ter if I teach them explicitly how to analyse the issues?’ The next stage involved not only
Research question:
‘Will my students be able
to structure an argument
better if I teach them explicitly
how to analyse the issues?’
Plan:
(a) how to teach students to
analyse complex issues
(b) how to collect data to
monitor effect
(c) how to analyse data
Act and observe:
Carry out new teaching
approach and data-
collection process
Reflect:
Analyse the evidence. Has the
problem been solved? If not,
decide on the next step. Has
this raised new questions?
Re-plan:
The revised plan to answer
the new question that has
arisen from the first cycle
Plan
Re-Plan
R
eflec
t
ACT
a
nd Ob
ser
ve
R
eflec
t
ACT
a
nd Ob
ser
ve
Figure 15.2 Action-research cycles
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658
were constructing arguments. The data collected included audio recordings of
small-group dialogue, lesson observation notes carried out by a colleague and, following
the intervention, the use of a diagnostic probe to find out about students’
views of the concepts and the teaching approach. The teacher also analysed the
students’ written work and interviewed a small representative sample of students
(see Table 13.1).
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249
planning how she would change her practice to help the students to analyse complex
issues, but also how she would analyse the data collected.
Acting out and observing the intervention
The teacher subdivided her research question into two parts. She looked first for
evidence of the students’ ability to analyse issues, and secondly at how her students
were constructing arguments. The data collected included audio recordings of
small-group dialogue, lesson observation notes carried out by a colleague and, fol-
lowing the intervention, the use of a diagnostic probe to find out about students’
views of the concepts and the teaching approach. The teacher also analysed the
students’ written work and interviewed a small representative sample of students
(see Table 15.1).
Table 15.1 Action-research data-collection plan
Research Question
Will my students be able to structure an argument better if I teach them
explicitly how to analyze the issues?
Sub-question
Data source
Data source
Data source
Data source
1. Can students analyse
complex issues?
Audio recording of
small-group dialogue
Diagnostic probe
Semi-structured
interviews with students
Colleagues’
observation notes
2. Can students
structure an
argument?
Students’ written work
Diagnostic probe
Semi-structured
interviews with students
Reflecting and re-planning
Subsequent analysis of the data and reflection on the issues arising from the interven-
tion prompted the teacher to modify her approach and to undertake a second
revised action-research cycle with the same data-collection methods. To be trans-
formative, action research needs to be carried out over a sustained period of enquiry
and involve reframing the problem in light of new sets of questions. It is this ongoing
reframing of the problem that leads to the transformative action that characterizes
action research.
Going further than simply reflecting in action
In the example given in Figure 15.2 the teacher’s aim was to be more reflective and to
develop a deeper understanding of this practice. The teacher researched her own classroom
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Reflecting and re-planning
Subsequent analysis of the data and reflection on the issues arising from the intervention
prompted the teacher to modify her approach and to undertake a second
revised action-research cycle with the same data-collection methods. To be transforma-
tive, action research needs to be carried out over a sustained period of enquiry
and involve reframing the problem in light of new sets of questions. It is this ongoing
reframing of the problem that leads to the transformative action that characterizes
action research.
Going further than simply reflecting in action
In the example given in Figure 13.2 the teacher’s aim was to be more reflective and to
develop a deeper understanding of this practice. The teacher researched her own class-
room through close observation and reflection as well as undertaking informed action.
This intervention did not involve the teacher in taking undue risks or making dramatic
changes.
Other forms of action research are associated with social transformation through
research efforts. Such situations may require that teachers or other researchers make
high risk changes that are driven by a deep commitment to equality, human well-being,
deeper understanding, and respect for others. In these circumstances, classroom-based
action researchers need to have a strong personal interest in the proposed action and
also have the authority to act for themselves in the research setting. Consequently,
action research involving social changes will mean taking calculated risks and making
prudent practical judgements about how to act in specific, often unique, classroom situa-
tions.
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For other action researchers, the primary goal will be to generate knowledge or
theoretical frameworks that other practitioners can draw on and adapt to improve prac-
tice within their own context.
Accordingly, because of these broad aims, action research has struggled to establish
itself as a serious form of academic research. Many questions continue to be
raised, such as: do practitioners draw on theoretical foundations when investigating
and reflecting on their practices and, if so, how? Do practitioners generate new
knowledge as a result of their action research? If so, what type of knowledge is this?
Can this knowledge be considered valid? These questions will be considered in the
next section.
CHALLENGING YOUR INTERPRETATIONS
You will always bring a number of assumptions to any process, so you need to be clear
about your own values and challenge your existing ideas. It is difficult to reflect on
your assumptions until you are aware of them, and even more difficult to engage in
discourse about something you have not identified. This is why it is essential for you
to work with a critical friend or group of people, and to constantly ask yourself, ‘What
is happening in my class?’ ‘What is important here?’ and ‘How can I understand what
is happening?’
The general questions below can help Structure ideas and lead to enquiring, testing
out and reflecting upon practical, personal or political issues within educational
situations.
1 What assumptions underlie this teacher’s interpretation of the data?
2 Is there another perspective or way of interpreting this situation?
3 What further questions does this analysis raise?
4 What sort of strategies would you suggest that this teacher might use to try to trans-
form the situation?
Activity 13.1
Read the following extract of a classroom teacher’s analysis of data she collected
from the first cycle of an action-research process and then discuss the questions
that follow this with your peers or your critical friend.
‘The picture that emerges from our various data sources is complex. By certain
standards, our class could be considered an accepting and inclusive environment
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660
for all children.
Every student received compliments from his or her peers, most children felt
that they were liked by their classmates, and all children were eventually selected
as someone’s ‘favourite’ friend. However, upon closer investigation, a disturbing
fact emerges: the children who look and sound different are not as popular as
their classmates. In fact, they form their own, separate social grouping. This may
be due to several factors.
First, the majority of our students with special needs suffer from expressive
and receptive language delays, which may impede their ability to engage in
conversation, share stories, and play with their schoolmates. Children of average
development became more linguistically adept across the year, and despite
explicit social instruction, the special education students were not acquiring
verbal skills at the same rate, and therefore did not learn to be able to negotiate
challenging social situations. As a result, they often relied on less languagebased
play, such as fantasy games, or less rule-oriented physical games such as
swinging on the monkey bars in the playground.
Second, because they do not live in the immediate neighbourhood, and
because of their parents’ busy work schedules, our children with special needs
had difficulty participating in out-of-school activities, and missed out on key
opportunities for shared social experiences and non-academic interactions. As
one parent reached out to these children and made efforts to integrate them
into her son’s after-school life, they brightened up, and seemed to feel ever
more
accepted and excited by the prospect of a play date. It was astounding what a
play date could do for these children’s self-esteem, engagement in the community,
and social status.
Finally, when in school, the Inclusion students spent much of their time
together, away from the classroom. Jennifer and I tried to schedule group
activities
when we knew we would have our full enrolment, but students’ individual
schedules were complex and often unpredictable, and it was impossible to
keep all students involved in every activity. In giving them special support, the
instruction itself was setting them apart from the mainstream.
In some sense, a caste system has been set up in my classroom. While the
children in the class have been open-minded, flexible, and accepting towards
one another, some obstacles seem to be insurmountable in creating a truly
“inclusive” classroom’ (Zindler, 2003)
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ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF ACTION RESEARCH
Action research, particularly classroom-based teacher work, is not universally accepted
as a public knowledge-generating process, and this might go some way to explaining
why there are few published examples of teachers’ own work (Chapter 14). Nevertheless,
experts in educational research are beginning to argue that existing criteria for judging
practitioner research are inadequate. John Elliott, a well-respected and active proponent
of practitioner research, argues that simply using existing tests of theoretical and method-
ological robustness as the only way of judging practitioner research fails to recognize
the value such work has for classroom teachers and the importance such work has for
building capacity among teachers as potential agents of educationally worthwhile change
(see Chapter 14).
Elliott (2006) has recently published criteria drawing on his own experiences
of teacher research to help make such judgements these are disused in the next
section.
ENSURING THAT YOUR OWN WORK IS RIGOROUS AND VALID
After completing your action-research project it will be important to disseminate your
findings to the wider world through the publication of a thesis or at a conference. To this
end it will be important that you address how well you have met the aims of your
research project.
For most classroom-focused action-research projects, the aim is to bring about a
change in your classroom practice so that you and your students grow as a result of your
intervention. In the process, you will generate new knowledge which is relevant to your
own classroom. This knowledge will have been validated through the systematic collection
of evidence by using appropriate methods. In other words, it will be possible
to judge the process, outcome, and catalytic and democratic validity of your own work
(see Table 15.2).
Table 13.2
Linking action-research goals with quality criteria
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253
Table 15.3 Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006
Process Validity
Are appropriate methods used to answer the question?
(a) Does the research focus on a problem that is of practical concern to the teachers involved?
(b) Does the research involve gathering data from the different points of view, for example, the teacher, an observer,
and students (triangulation)?
(c) Does the research enable the teacher researcher to call their existing stock of professional knowledge (tacit
theories) into question, and to test it against evidence gathered in their practical situation?
(d) Does the research extend teachers’ understanding of their situation in a way that opens up new possibilities for
action?
Democratic Validity
Are the researchers and researched engaged and included in the inquiry?
Is the research a rigorous conversational process in which the teacher opens up his/her practice to the rational scrutiny
of students and peers, ‘in-voices’ their views of the action situation, and in the process demonstrates a disposition to
subordinate his/her own prejudices to the search for an overlapping and un-coerced consensus?
Catalytic Validity
Is the research transformative?
(a) Is the research a deliberative and self-reflexive process in which the teacher calls into question both his/her
teaching strategies (means) and the aims (ends) to which they are directed, and then modifies each by reflecting
on the other?
(b) Is the research a process in which the teacher displays:
• integrity in the pursuit of his/her educational aims and values
• curiosity about other people’s interpretations of the action situation
• objectivity and honesty about his/her own motives and reasons for action
• open-mindedness towards the views of others and respect for their freedom of thought and action?
Outcome Validity
Has the process led to a resolution and/or a reframing of the problem?
(a) Does the research enlarge the teacher’s sphere of personal agency in the practical situation through the realization
of his/her educational aims in a sustainable form?
(b) Does the research enable a teacher to generate a description of the complexities of the case in sufficient detail to
be of universal significance to other teachers?
Table 15.2 Linking action-research goals with quality criteria
Goals of Action Research
Quality/Validity Criteria
1. The generation of new knowledge
Process validity
2. The achievement of action-oriented outcomes
Outcome validity
3. The education of both researcher and participants
Catalytic validity
4. Results that are relevant to the local setting
Democratic validity
5. A sound and appropriate research methodology
Process validity
Source: Herr and Anderson (2005).
Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or hav-
ing a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you
during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the
process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy
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Table 13.3
Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006
Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or having
a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you
during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the
process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy
to explore the complexity of your classroom and to take risks to make changes to your
practice.
You must remember that your classroom is unique and that the dynamics will
change daily, so try to avoid being despondent when things do not follow your plan
exactly. However, you need to persevere with your idea and modify your approach in
light of your increased understanding. Above all, recognize and value your own skill
as a classroom practitioner, especially when you first start to learn about the methods
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Table 15.3 Assessing the validity of action research based on Elliot, 2006
Process Validity
Are appropriate methods used to answer the question?
(a) Does the research focus on a problem that is of practical concern to the teachers involved?
(b) Does the research involve gathering data from the different points of view, for example, the teacher, an observer,
and students (triangulation)?
(c) Does the research enable the teacher researcher to call their existing stock of professional knowledge (tacit
theories) into question, and to test it against evidence gathered in their practical situation?
(d) Does the research extend teachers’ understanding of their situation in a way that opens up new possibilities for
action?
Democratic Validity
Are the researchers and researched engaged and included in the inquiry?
Is the research a rigorous conversational process in which the teacher opens up his/her practice to the rational scrutiny
of students and peers, ‘in-voices’ their views of the action situation, and in the process demonstrates a disposition to
subordinate his/her own prejudices to the search for an overlapping and un-coerced consensus?
Catalytic Validity
Is the research transformative?
(a) Is the research a deliberative and self-reflexive process in which the teacher calls into question both his/her
teaching strategies (means) and the aims (ends) to which they are directed, and then modifies each by reflecting
on the other?
(b) Is the research a process in which the teacher displays:
• integrity in the pursuit of his/her educational aims and values
• curiosity about other people’s interpretations of the action situation
• objectivity and honesty about his/her own motives and reasons for action
• open-mindedness towards the views of others and respect for their freedom of thought and action?
Outcome Validity
Has the process led to a resolution and/or a reframing of the problem?
(a) Does the research enlarge the teacher’s sphere of personal agency in the practical situation through the realization
of his/her educational aims in a sustainable form?
(b) Does the research enable a teacher to generate a description of the complexities of the case in sufficient detail to
be of universal significance to other teachers?
Table 15.2 Linking action-research goals with quality criteria
Goals of Action Research
Quality/Validity Criteria
1. The generation of new knowledge
Process validity
2. The achievement of action-oriented outcomes
Outcome validity
3. The education of both researcher and participants
Catalytic validity
4. Results that are relevant to the local setting
Democratic validity
5. A sound and appropriate research methodology
Process validity
Source: Herr and Anderson (2005).
Finally, you will find that being able to work collaboratively with colleagues or hav-
ing a critical friend who can catalyse the process of critical thinking will support you
during the action-research process and ensure that you are always reflexive about the
process. It is also important to have the support of your department and the autonomy
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of education research. If possible, seek out expert help from a more experienced
researcher or undertake formal research-methods training. Finally, and probably most
importantly, set aside sufficient dedicated time to think, reflect and talk so that you can
really engage fully with this professionally liberating process.
Action research will not provide all the answers to our questions about how students
learn or what educators can do to improve practice. But action research happens at the
place where these questions arise; it happens where the real action is taking place; and
it allows for immediate action.
Key ideas
Action research is an educative process carried out in social situations that
usually involves posing and solving problems resulting in a change intervention.
This cyclic process of improvement and involvement is common to the research
traditions discussed: technical, positivist/post-positivist, interpretive and also to
critical inquiry.
Reflective questions
1 What key issue have you identified that you want to change?
2 Have you used the very latest research knowledge to inform what you do in
your intervention?
3 Have you read Chapters 5 and 6?
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Further Reading
Altrichter, H., Feldman, A., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (2007) Teachers Investigate Their
Work: An Introduction to Action Research across the Professions (2nd edn). London:
Routledge.
Baumfield, V., Hall, E. and Wall, K. (2008) Action Research in the Classroom. London:
Sage.
Herr, K. and Anderson, G.L. (2005) The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for
Students and Faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2011) All You Need To Know About Action Research
(2nd edn). London: Sage.
Stenhouse, L. (1985) Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of
Lawrence Stenhouse. London: Heinemann.
Somekh, B. (2005) Action Research: A Methodology for Change and Development
.Maidenhead McGraw-Hill.
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ПОРЯДОК ПРОВЕДЕНИЯ
ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ В ДЕЙСТВИИ
ELAINE WILSON
ГЛАВА 13
Обзор главы
Данная глава является пошаговой инструкцией по проведению школьного
исследования в действии. Каждый этап будет объяснен на реальном
опубликованном примере исследования классного учителя с целью изменения
практики. Будут рассмотрены вопросы исследователя и процесс сбора данных,
чтобы проиллюстрировать каждый этап процесса.
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Обязательство по проведению исследования
Первый этап процесса проведения исследования в действии – это выявление в классе
проблемы, которая вас беспокоит, и которую вы хотите изменить (см. Рисунок 13.1).
Первый этап начинается с вопросов о том, что происходит в классах, и что другие
могут воспринимать как должное. На самом базовом уровне это может касаться
выяснения, кто не отвечает на вопросы на уроках или не сдает домашнюю работу, и
почему это так? Или же вопрос может возникнуть после чтения об «Обучении без
границ» (Learning without Limits) и трансформационном потенциале за счет установки
более инклюзивной классной среды (Hart et al., 2004). Такие вопросы может быть
неудобно задавать. Они могут дать еще более неудобные ответы. Однако пока и
если учителя не разберутся со сложными вопросами, будет невозможно сделать что-
либо для улучшения учебы учеников в классах. Одним словом, исследование в действии
помогает учителям узнавать о себе как учителях и понять, как начать аналитически
размышлять о преподавании и обучении.
Рисунок 13.1 Проведение исследования в действии
Как учителя проводят исследование в действии?
В следующих разделах будет использован реальный пример исследования в действии,
проведенного в реальном классе, взятый из статьи, опубликованной в экспертном
журнале. Статья называется: Tsafos, V. (2009) ‘Teacher–student negotiation in an action
research project’, Educational Action Research, 17(2). 197 – 211. Краткие отрывки из
статьи будут использованы для иллюстрации процесса исследования, который разбит
на этапы.
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