Islam In Kazakhstan
Dissemination of Islam on the territory of the present Kazakhstan lasted for a few centuries.
The ethnic Kazakhs are by tradition Sunni Muslims and follow the Hanafi law school. One of the
four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, the Hanafi is the most liberal of the four schools and
the one which allows the most freedom in making new interpretations of the traditional laws and
is the most willing to allow debate on the subjects of piety, devotion and worship. Free thinking
cultivated by this school made possible to generate such giants like Al Farabi and Avicenna[1].
During the Middle Ages Islam was gradually penetrating the nomadic steppe incorporating
new ethnic groups. Nomadic steppe normally lived its own life but it had economic ties with the
rest of the Central Asia and these routes favored penetration of Islam. Further dissemination of
Islam in the XVIXVII centuries was promoted by tense economic and cultural relations of
Kazakhs with the Central Asian peoples and Volga Tatars. Missioners from Tashkent,
Samarkand, Khiva, Bukhara visited the steppe. According to Chokan Valikhanov, nomadic life
style did not cause any obstacle for people to follow the rules of Shari’ah, literacy, and
knowledge. In every aul there was a mullah and all adult population followed Islamic thirty day
fasting and five time prayer. In the steppe Islam was intertwined with everyday life and became
domestic folk Islam which was a synthesis of original traditions, rites and ceremonies of pre
Islamic period inherited by the inhabitants of these lands. Chokan Valikhanov in his article “On
Islam in the Steppe” underlined the role of the culture of Islam interfering everyday life of the
nomadic society of the Steppe. Kazakh society appreciates such values as the respect to elders,
worship to deceased ancestors. Every nomadic tribe revered cult of its ancestor (aruah). Since
early childhood Kazakhs were introduced the stereotypes of ritual culture and life behavior based
461
on the deep interrelation of man and the environment [2]. A code of laws “Jety Zharghy”
confirmed by Khan Tauke in the XVIII became a major step in further introduction of Islam into
public life and juridical practice because it was based both on the norms of Shari’ah and the
customary law of the Kazakhs – “adat” [3].
After Kazakhstan’s full accession to Russian empire in the XIX century there occurred
lessening of tempos and forms of Islamization. The khans and sultans lost their leading role in
the society in the result of accession because of the loss of political independence. Muslim clergy
especially ishans – traditional Sufi authorities lost their influence either. The Tsarist policy was
crafty and mercenary. There were different turns and strategies in religious policy of the Imperial
Russia depending on political challenges and threats.
Imperial Religious Policy in The XVIII Century
Military strategic plans were fulfilled in Russian conquests in the East in the XVIIIXIX
centuries. The Kazakh Steppe being “the gates to Asian countries and lands” occupied a special
important place in Russian foreign policy. Peter I considered it reasonable and very
advantageous for Russian future to give protection to the “KirgizKaisak horde” which would
serve as communication to all Asian countries [4]. Starting with 1875 when Catherine II issued a
Decree which allowed nonOrthodox peoples of the Russian empire to act their daily devotions
particularly to Muslims. The second half of the XVIII century became the time of full favor of
Russian empire to Islam and it also became the time of the incline from patronage of the
Orthodox Church. The authorities officially accepted nonorthodox religions, developed artificial
management structures to organize their communities. These steps were intended to isolate local
communities in the Russian empire from external influence of the main centers of corresponding
religions. Direct support of the Tsarist administration to the Muslims on the initial stage of
colonization strengthened the position of Islam among Kazakhs. The government expected that
clergy loyal to authorities would strengthen the position of the imperial authority in the steppe. In
1788 the government of the Catherine II founded Orenburg Muslim Religious Administration for
the Muslims of the empire. Kazakh clergy became part of it.
After Pugachev’s revolt in 17731775 there arose new plans and directions in governing the
Orenburg area. One of the primary tasks was change in religious policy and development of a
mechanism of relation with the Islamic authorities of the region. Foundation of Orenburg
Muslim Assembly changed the policy concerning Kazakh tribes. Now Tatar and Bashkir Mullas
were sent to the Kazakh steppe to found mosques and open medreses introducing canonic Islam.
Muslim mekteps and medreses facilitated dissemination of literacy among Kazakhs and
contributed the formation of ethnic selfconsciousness. Success of Islamic missioners among
nomads was due to knowledge of language, customs and habits and due to strong Sufi traditions
of Islam in the steppe. Favorable to Islam policy of Catherine II protected Muslim religious
affairs of the steppe from state administrative pressure. In 1764 г. with liquidation of bureau for
newly baptized in Kazan all missionary work among Muslims lost state financial support and the
role of Islamic missionary activity grew up.
Until the middle of the XIX century all missionary work of the Russian Orthodox Church
among Muslim population was considered to be a private affair of a certain clergy and monastery
and was not an activity of Church and state administration. Moreover for an Orthodox clergy in
order to baptize a Kazakh was obligatory to get a permission from the Russian colonial
administration without one it was prohibited to baptize anyone in the Kazakh steppe [5]. The
reason of liberality of the imperial authority to Islam was to attract the people in the steppe to the
new authority through the policy of toleration. That was why sufficient resources were allocated
462
for erection of mosques, schoolsmektep and medreses with caravanserais nearby. Certainly,
these efforts were done for very practical reasons but at the same time the Imperial
administration strengthened position of Islam in nomadic society where Islam had its own forms.
Imperial Religious Policy In The XIX Century
In the second half of the ХІХcentury after full accession of Kazakhstan to the Russian
empire with statehood transformation there took place full transformation of all spheres of life
political institutions, economic and daily life, and culture. Clearly, spiritual and religious life
changed too.
In the beginning of the 1880
th
with the new appointments in the Synod there were done decisive
steps to make the status of the Russian Orthodox Church become dominant in the empire. The
Russian Orthodox Church expanded its interests to all corners of the Earth and it especially
strengthened and toughened its position towards all outskirts of the empire. Ideology of the
Russian empire under reign of Nicolas 1 was defines as “autocracy, orthodoxy”. Enactment of
the law “Regulations on Siberian Kirgiz” signed by Emperor Alexander in 1822 and other
regulations considered the Kazakhs as the object of colonial expansion. Beginning with the first
decades of XIX century Islamic clergy was subordinate to a special department under Ministry of
Internal Affairs with the local authority – Orenburg spiritual Assembly headed by Mufti. Life
and activity of Islamic clergy was strictly regulated including censorship of the literature used
which recommended only published in Russia and confirmed issues. Decreed by the authorities
Mullas were prescribed to every administration unit not for religious but rather political
purposes. Those who did not fulfill prescribed governmental instructions were condemned
morally and legally. However, despite increasing financial support, foundation of new structures
within the church, new laws adopted to limit heterodoxy results were far more from being
successful. All these efforts were sabotaged by the local elites and lower rank officials who were
representatives of the local ethnic groups. Enactment of the law “Regulations on Siberian Kirgiz”
deprived local elites of their long existed exceptional status among the tribesmen.
Strengthening role of Islam on the territory of Kazakhstan shaped Muslim ideology. If the
role of Islam had been too strong it would have caused antiRussian ideas. That was why this
time strong Islam among Kazakhs did not respond the objectives of the Russian policy and it
took new direction in dealing with Muslims. There were taken measures infringing spiritual
religious freedom of Kazakhs such as limitations for foundation of religious enlightening
communities, for implementation of hajj to Mecca. Instead of Islamic schools – mektep there
were founded secular RussianKazakh institutions at different levels of education with Russian
language of instruction excluding teaching of canons of Islam [6].
Imperial policy changed radically from Islamization to Christianization. The first ideas of
involving Kazakh population in the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church began
circulating in the 20
th
of the XIX century. It was intended to send archimandrite Makarii to the
Kazakh steppe. However the initiative was suspended because Vice Chancellor earl Nesselrode
considered these steps to be too early in order not to cause discontentment of the Kazakhs which
could make them refuse from the Russian patronage [7].
There were a few reasons to start a Mission of the Church: increase of the Muslim population of
the empire, strengthening of the position of Islam among Kazakhs therefore a necessity to limit
its influence on the nomads. And authorities still thought that these measures were too early [8].
They realized that missionary activity in Central Asia would differ from the ones existing
in Altai, Baikal and Irkutsk regions. As a result the first Orthodox missions appeared there under
Tomsk eparchy and Kirgiz mission was part of it [9]. Later in the middle of the XIX century the
463
Russian authorities and the Holy Synod began to initiate foundation of the Russian Orthodox
mission in the Kazakh steppe in the south of the Tobol eparchy, in Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk
provinces. In the second half of the XIX century new institutions to train missioners in anti
Islamic discussion were founded. For example, Kazan Theological Academy established
“Missionary AntiIslamic Department”. Alimentation of the Missions of the Church required
considerable amounts of money as seen from the analysis of statistical data given in “Review of
the activity of Department of Orthodox confession under the reign of the Emperor Alexander
III”. Baptizing of one Muslim required about 267 rubles while an average amount needed for
others was just 77 rubles [10].
Under the influence of the GeneralGovernors of the region imperial administration
formulated new principles of confessional policy in the Central Asian region: a) elimination of
influence of external centers of Islam (foreign and Russian), b) weakening of influence of Sufism
on the spiritual life, c) elimination of using donated funds, d) introduction of European type
programs to Islamic schools of the region [11]. In the Tsarist Russia Orthodox Christianity was
part of official political life therefore Christianization had political goals.
Conclusion
Strengthening of the position of Islam was promoted by the Tsarist administration with the
aim of further colonization of the Kazakh lands through the involvement of Tatar clergy,
through introduction of canonic Islam, which in turn introduced new confessional institutions.
Central Asian merchants took part in construction of mosques and organization of religious
communities on these lands. Another factor which played a significant role in strengthening
position of Islam in the region was the activity of Sufis who were in most cases spiritually
developed persons and became spiritual advisers of the whole communities because the very
nature of Sufism found to be very close to traditional spiritual culture of the steppe such as
revered cult of ancestors aruahs. Although Islamic Board was not founded for administration
of the work among Muslims in the region, despite the policy of limitation of its support to
dissemination of Islam in the steppe Islamization on the contrary increased. Mullas were elected
by the people but their approval and dismissal was prerogative of the governors of the regions.
Simultaneously in many auls there were nonappointed local Mullas. Mullas in the steppe were
not given any status as the representatives of administration in dealing with any kind of
documentation such as marriage and family affairs in order to limit their official status in the
society. By the end of the XIX century certain changes took place in construction and
maintenance of mosques. Only colonial administration approved construction of the mosques “in
order to counteract to development of Islam among Kirgiz” and only one mosque was allowed
per county (volost’). Approvals were given by Generalgovernors in Akmolinsk, Semirechensk
and Semipalatinsk regions and for Uralsk, Turgai, and Turkestan regions the decisions were
taken by the Minister of Internal Affairs.
Islamization of the Kazakhs followed a few goals: Through integration of the Kazakh
steppe into imperial Islamic community the Tsarist administration planned firstly, to lessen the
friction in land using since thousands of landless peasants migrated from inner Russia to the
steppe, secondly, make sedentarization of nomads with further baptizing into Orthodox
Christianity. Furthermore according to Tsarist administration plans Orthodox Christian
missionary work would gradually lead to Russification of the local tribes. However, on the
contrary missionary activity of the Orthodox Church forced Kazakhs to reassess religious and
moral values and counteract to the situation and caused consolidation of the Kazakh ethnos.
464
References:
1 “Religious Education as the Factor of Prophylaxis of Extremism and Terrorism” (Proceedings
of the Republican ScientificPractical conference. P.119.)
2 Chokan Valikhanov . O musulmanstve v stepi, Polnoye sobraniye sochinenii, Kazakh Soviet
Encyclopedia, Almaty, 1985, tom 4, pp7177.
3 Salyk Zinamov, Kazakh Court of Bii – a Unique Judicial System. Almaty, 2008. p.68.
4 Shakhmatov V.F., editor. KazakhRussian relations. (Collection of Documents) Almaty. 1961.
5 Gorbunova S.V. Policy of the Russian Empire in the Kazakh Little Horde. Moscow, 2001.pp.
175185.
6 Lyssenko Yu. A. (2007). Religious field in Kazakhstan in XVIII-XIX centuries //Historical and
Philosophical research in Siberia: Proceedings of scientific conference devoted to 50-th anniversary of
chairs of History and Regional Studies in Tomsk Polytechnic University. Tomsk. Part1. pp10-15.
7 Chernyavski N.M. (1903). Orenburg Eparchy in the Past and Present. Issue 2. Saint Petersburg,
p.453. )
8 Tobol Eparchy Journals. 1894. p.239.
9 Lyssenko Yu.A. (2006) History of Becoming of the Kirgiz Mission in Altai. // To the Future
through Centuries /AllRussian scientificpractical conference devoted to 250th anniversary of
Altai’s accession to the Russian state. GornoAltaisk.
10
Karimova S.A., Missionary Activity of the Russian Orthodox Church among the Muslims
of the Russian Empire.
http://www.sciteclibrary.ru/texsts/rus/stat/st881.htm. Accessed on
March 8
, 2015.
11
Tashkenbayeva D.A., Formation of the Peculiarities of the Central Asian Geopolitical
Interests of the Russian Empire. // Questions of Historical Science: Proceedings of the III
International Scientific Conference. Moscow, 2015, January. Moscow. BukiVedi, 2015. Pp.130
132.
УДК: 94 (564.3)19/20
Жұматаева Д.
1
, Тұрлыбек А.
2
1
Қ.А.Ясауи атындағы Халықаралық Қазақ-Түрік университеті
E-mail:
dinarazhumatayeva@gmail.com
2
Сулейман Демирел университеті, E-mail:
aslan.turlybek@sdu.edu.kz
КИПРДІҢ МҰСЫЛМАНДАР БИЛІГІНЕ ӨТУІ
Abstract. Thearticle investigates the issue of the conquest of Cyprus by the first Muslims
and the period of their rule. According to historical documents the island of Cyprus is described
as the the third largest island in the Mediterranean after islands of Sicily and Sardinia with its
deep history and beautiful nature. In addition, the strategic importance of the island is written in
the literature of political history. But there are very few information about the conquest of the
island by Muslims and the sacred spiritual centers built in Cyprus by the Muslim rulers.
Therefore, the objective assessment should be given to the historical centers which are
considered by Muslims as sacred. It is necessary to explain to general public the importance of
Cyprus to the Islamic world due to the Muslim martyrs who are lying in the island.
Key words: Cyprus, the Mediterranean Sea, the strategic importance, Muslims, sacred
centers.
465
Кипр аралы Азия, Европа жəне Африка құрлықтарын бірбіріне байланыстыратын
маңызды торапта орналасқан. Тарихта таяу шығысқа билік жүргізуге ұмтылған барлық
мемлекеттер үшін, кипр аралы стратегиялық, əрі сауда саттықтың басты қамалы іспеттес
болды. Сонымен қатарарал, теңіз жолындағы көпір қызметін атқарған. Тарихтың əр
кезеңдерде кипр аралы алма кезек сырт күштердің билігінде болған. Шығыс Жерорта
теңізінде орналасқан осынау аралды, б.з.б жəне біздің заманымыздың қазіргі таңына дейін
алпауыт мемлекеттердің өз қауіпсіздігі мен дүниеге билік жүргізу мақсатында басты
қаруы ретінде қолданған.Сондықтан болар Шығыс Жерорта теңізінде орналасқан
тұрғысынан кипр аралы тарихта «батпайтын ұшақ кеме» деп тегін аталмаса керек 1, 1б.
Сондай ақ кипр қаншама уақыт діндер арасындағы қақтығыс майданына айналған.
Мысалы аралда Католиктер мен Православтардың рухани тартысы, Венециялық
Католиктердің жергілікті тұрғындардың діни сеніміне аяқасты ету барысында Православ
мəзхабындағы християндар өз сенімдері бойынша ғибадат ету мүмкіншіліктерін
жоғалтқан болатын. Осы бір оқиғаларды тарихи дерекетрдің бұлжытпай жеткізгеніне
қарамастан, Ислам дінің кипрге жетуін жаулап алушылық, християн дініне деген
өшпенділік, жергілікті халықты ауыр салық төлеуге мəжбүрлеген деген сыңар жақты
пікірлер өкінішке орай тарихтан орын алған. Бұл көпе кернеу жалған жала. Кипрде Ислам
дінінің орнығуын екі кезеңнен өткендігін түсіндіреді зерттеушілер. Біріншісі Халифа
Əзіреті (Əз) Оспан дəуірі болса, екіншісі 1571 жылы Осман мемлекетінің аралды толық
бағындыруы арқылы қазіргі таңға дейін жеткендігін жеткізуде 2, 815б. Бірақ Османлы
мемлекетінің кипрді өзіне қаратқанын бұл жерде қарастырмаймыз. Біздің тек мақсатымыз
Мұсылмандардың кипр саясатының қалай өрбігенін жəне жергілікті халықтың рухани
сеніміне мұсылмандардың қысым көрсетпегенін мəнін ашу болып табылады.
Мұсылмандардың алғашқы теңіз соғысы
Əз. Оспан кезеңінің Əз. Омар дəуірінен ең басты айырмашылығы Əз. Оспан
Халифаттығы тұсында мұсылмандардың теңізшілік өнерді жандандыруы мен қол
жеткізген толағай жеңістері болып табылады 3, 5б. Негізінде мұсылмандардың теңізбен
танысу ретінде қабылданған алғашқы ұрыс Меккенің алынуынан жеті айдан кейінгі
болған оқиға. 630 жылдың шілде (Хижра 9 ж. Ребиүлəувел) айында Меккенің порты
саналған Шуайбеге қарсы қарақшылардың басқыншылығын тойтару мақсатында
Пайғамбарымыз (с.ə.у.) Алкаме бин Мужеззиз əлМудлижи қолбасшылығындағы 300
сарбазды аттандырды. Қарақшылар мұсылмандардың тегеурінді қарсылығынан кері
шегінуге мəжбүр болған. Бұл Пайғамбарымыздың көзі тірісіндегі алғашқы теңіз соғысы
болатын 4, 496б.
638 жылы Əз. Омар басқарған Ислам Халифаты Шығыс Жерорта теңізінің көптеген
айлақтары Дамаск, Антакия, Иерусалим, толықтай Сирия жағалаулары, Палестина жəне
Мысырды бағындырды. Жаулап алынған жерлер Ислам Халифаттығына аса қомақты
материалдық қаржы мен қарқынды дамудың жолын ашты. Қаратылған жаңа жерлердің
теңізден келетін əртүрлі қауіптер мен тосқауылдарға қарсы Əскеритеңіз күштерін құру
керектігіне назар аудартты. Мысыр мен Сирияның мол қазынасы саудасаттықтан келіп
түсетін. Осы аймақтың билеуші əкімдері қарулы күштердің күшейтілуімен қатар Əскери
теңіз флотының тез арада құрылу керектігін күн тəртібіне қойды. Сонымен қатар флотты
жасақтауға мемлекеттің күші де жеткілікті болатын. Себебі Мысыр мен Сирия
шығанақтарындағы кеме жасайтын орындарды бағындырылған болатын.
466
Алғашында Əскеритеңіз күштеріне күмəнмен қараған мұсылмандар көп уақыт
өтпестен теңізсіз істің атқарылмайтынына көз жеткізді. Өйткені Византияның теңіздегі
күшінің артуы Мысыр мен Сирияға үнемі қауіп төндіретін еді. 645 жылы Византия
Александрия қаласын жаулап алды. Мұсылман билеушілері арасынан Византияға қарсы
тұруға теңіз флотының жəрдемінсіз мүмкін еместігін ең алғаш түсінген де Мұғауия ибн
Əбу Суфйан еді. Сирия əкімі Мұғауия Халиф Əз. Омарға теңіз шығанақтарының жай
жапсарын айта келіп, теңізге шығуына рұқсат сұраған. Бірақ Əз. Омар мұсылмандардың
əлі теңізді толық меңгермеген һəм тəжирбесіз деп ойлағандықтан əрі Мысыр əкімі Амр
ибн улАс’тан теңіз жайында толық мағлұмат жіберуін бұйырды. Ал Мұғауияға қала
қорғандарын қайта жөндеп сарбаз санын арттырып, қарауыл мұнараларын тұрғызып
күзетші қойуын жəне кешқұрым уақыттарда шырақтар жағылуына əмір етті 4, 496б.
Мысыр əкімі Амр ибн улАс’тың Əз. Омарға жауабы хаһындағы деректемелер;
«Бірнеше үлкен желкенді кемелер, ішінде құрттай адамдар, теңіз суы тыныш кезінде де
жүректері қорқынышқа толы, теңіз толқынданып буырқанғанда ақыл естерінен танады.
Теңізде адамның сенімі азайып күмəні артады. Кеме жантайса батады, жағаға жетсе
бақытты санайды өздерін» – деп жауап беруі Халифтің теңіз арқылы жасалатын
жорықтарын кідірткен жəне Мұғауияның да кипрді бағындыру өтінішіне рұқсат етпеген
3, 5б. Осы кезде Византия императоры да мұсылмандар мен достық бейбіт келісімге
келуге ұмтылғандықтан теңіз ісі кейінге қалдырылуына негіз болған.
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