PARTICLES
Jabbarkhanov Khumoyun
Suleyman Demirel University
Abstract. We know the different structures of small particles (atomic, molecular).
Physicists and
chemists easier to find them property using geometric plan.
With the help of mathematical laws we are
trying to find new properties of the structure.
We will study them in graph theory and each structure will
be thought of as a graph. Lattice structures will be studied as edges of the graph, and each small particles
is treated as vertices.
Keyword: graph theory, Euler circuit and trail, complete graph.
1.Introduction
Graph theory is one of the sections of discrete mathematics that explores the properties of finite
or countable sets with given relations between their elements. A feature of this theory is the geometric
approach to the study of objects[1]. As we know the theory of graphs used in many areas.
Modern graph
theory gives only a convenient apparatus for modeling the structural properties of the various systems
and relationships between objects of different nature. Especially in the areas of road.
Now we will study
their compounds of small particles(see Fig.1). To understand them we need to know the basic concepts
of graph theory that we need. These are degree of vertices, complete graph, circuit, trail and other.
We
shall consider their definitions and theorems.
Using theorem we find out some proposition that we need.
And in the end we will try to use them in atomic and other structures.
a)
b)
Fig.1.
Atomic and crystal structure.
2. Graphs and their basic concepts
Definition 1. A graph is a pair of sets (V, E), where V is the set of vertices and E is the set of edges, formed
by pairs of vertices. E is a multiset, in other words, its elements can occur more than once so that every
element has a multiplicity. Often, we label the vertices with letters (for example: a, b, c, . . .or v
1,
v
2,
v
3
. . .) or
numbers 1,2, . . .[2].Graphs for different parameters a are divided into different types. For example directed
428
and undirected, connected graph. Since the definition of these graphs is not our main concern, we are not dwell
on them.
a)
b)
Fig.2
graphs with different degrees of the vertices. [2,3]
Definition 2.Let G be an undirected graph or multigraph.For each vertex v of G, the degree of v,written
deg(v),is the number of edges in G that the incident with v. Here loop of the vertex v is considered as two
incident edges for v.For example in fig.2(a) deg(v
1
)=1,deg(v
2
)=2,deg(v
5
)=5.
Theorem 1.If G is undirected graph or multigraph ,then
∑
deg(??????) = 2|??????|
??????∈??????
(1) [4]
“Proof. As we consider each edge {a, b} in graph G .we find that the edge contributes a count of 1 to each
of deg(a),deg(b) and consequently a count of 2 ∑
deg (??????)
??????∈??????
. Thus
2|??????| accounts for deg(v),for
all v
∈ ?????? and ∑
deg(??????) = 2|??????|
??????∈??????
’’ [1].
For example in fig.3(b) graph has a sum of the degrees of all vertices is equal to 16, so 16=
2|??????| |??????|=8.
That is, we have 8 edges . Now we present the famous theorem
Definition 3.A complete graph is a graph with n vertices and an edge between every two vertices. There are
no loops.
Usually, they are denoted by K
n
(see fig.3).
Where n denotes the number of vertices
Since we are
interested in the structure, we will work with complete graphs. All of the following theorems and conclusions
will be shown relatively complete graphs
Fig.3 Complete graphs.[5]
We leave the reader to definition the Euler trail and circuit.
Theorem 2.A connected and undirected or multigraph G is Euler circuit if and only if G is connected and
every vertex has an even degree.
Follows from this theorem:
Proposition 1. We can construct Euler trail if and only if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.[2]
429
Proof. Let G=(V,E) is a subgraph and it passes all the edges.
Has at the same time even degree of each vertex.
Their vertices are denoted by v
1
,
v
2
,v
3
…v
n
.
We denote v
1
as initial vertex of the circuit.
As the circuit comes
back to the v
1
while having an even degree of each vertex.
Connection with any vertex v
1
doing two vertices
of odd degree.
Such compounds edges vertices v
1
and v
2
.
So we've got two vertices of odd degree and all the
rest will be even.
Proposition 2.
Euler circuit is the longest circuit in a complete graph.[6]
Proposition 3. Euler trail is the longest trail in a complete graph.[7]
We must try to determine the maximum length(L
c
) of circuit in K
n.
Let n be an odd number.
Then we know that the degree of each vertex is equal to n-1 which is even.
By
Theorem 2 we know that Euler circuit(which is the maximum length of circuit) is performed when all vertices
have even degree.
So our cycle pass all edge of the graph.
We just need to determine the number of edges of
this graph.
Using (1)
n(n-1)=2|
??????|
,
|??????| =
??????(??????−1)
2
so ,when n is odd number
L
c
=
??????(??????−1)
2
Now let n be an even number.
Then each vertex will have odd degree (n-1).
To make their numbers even
remove the edges {v
1
,v
2
},{v
3
,v
4
},{v
5,
v
6
}…{v
n-1
,v
n
}(see Fig.4)
Fig.4 Complete graph.
Here shows us the necessary edges to understand well
So we have removed
??????
2
edges.
In fact, it is not important to remove this order.
Main aim is to make the
degree of all vertices even.
So, now the degree of each vertex is equal to n-2 (even). By the (1)
(n-2)n=2|
??????|
,
|??????| =
(??????−2)??????
2
so,
when n is even number
L
c
=
(??????−2)??????
2
.
We can write this as a theorem.
Theorem 3. The maximum length of the circuit in K
n
equal to
L
c
=
??????(??????−1)
2
(when n is odd number) (2) and L
c
=
(??????−2)??????
2
(when n is even number). (3)
For example maximum length of the circuit in K
6
equal to L
c
=
(6−2)6
2
= 12.
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Using Proposition 1, we can solve the following problem.
How to determine maximum length of the trail(L
t
)
in K
n
?
Let n be an even number. Following the the last problem we remove edges {v
3
,v
4
},{v
5,
v
6
}…{v
n1
,v
n
}.(see
Fig.4)
We leave only one edge and let it be
{v
1
,v
2
}.So, we create the conditions in the Proposition of 1.
Because we have v
1
and v
2
having odd degree and all other that have even degree. By the (1) we know that
the total number of edges in K
n
is equal to |
??????| =
(??????−2)??????
2
.
We also know that we have removed (
??????
2
− 1) edges.
If we take their difference
(??????−1)??????
2
−(
??????
2
− 1),
we obtain the desired result L
t
=
1
2
(n
2
-2n+2),where n is even .
Now let n be an odd number.
Then we get all the vertices of even
and we have to remove only one vertex.
Eventually we will get
??????(??????−1)
2
− 1 edges .So,
we get L
t=
1
2
(n
2
-n-2
) where n is odd.
Now we write it as a
theorem.
Theorem 4. The maximum length of the trail in K
n
equal to
L
t=
1
2
(n
2
-n-2
) (when n is odd number) (4) and L
t
=
1
2
(n
2
-2n+2)(when n is even number).(5)
So, we looked at the needed component of the graph.
3.
Use graphs of various structures
Now we give some examples of the use of graphs.
One of the simple example is the structure of quartz.(see
Fig.5)
Fig.5
Quartz structures that is in the science as equal Fig.6 Structure of some atoms
Now, we have a simple way we can count the number of edges, because we know the degrees of all vertices.
By the (1) |
??????| =
12∗3
2
= 18
.
we consider the structure of the atom(Fig.6) as K
8
.
If we need to calculate the
maximum length of circuit, by the formula (3) we can calculate L
c
=
6∗8
2
= 24 .By the formula (4)
L
t
=
1
2
(64 − 8 − 2) = 27 we calculated the maximum length of a trail.
It was the most simple examples.
In science, much more difficult.
Number and length which we used can help defining the properties
Concluding
So, we were able to apply the laws of graph theory in science as physics and chemistry.
431
Referencing
[1]. A.V Cherednikova, I.V Zemlyakova (2011). Introduction to graph theory.Kostroma State
Technological University
[2].Ralph P.Grimaldi(2003). Discret and combinatorial mathematics.Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
[3].
Edward A. Bender S. Gill Williamson (2010). Lists, Decisions and Graphs Retrieved from:
chrome-
extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/http://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~gill/BWLectSite/Resources/C2
U4GT.pdf
[4] Paul Van Doore.(2009)Graph Theory and Application.University catholique de Louvain.
[5]. Keijo Ruohonen (2013) .Graph theory. Retrieved from:
chrome-
extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/http://math.tut.fi/~ruohonen/GT_English.pdf
[6]. Reinhard Diestel(2000). Graph Theory. Springer-Verlag New York
[7]. Introduction to Graph Theory Allen Dickson 2006 Retrieved from: chrome-
extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/http://www.math.utah.edu/mathcircle/notes/MC_Graph_
Theory.pdf
[3].
Edward A. Bender S. Gill Williamson (2010). Lists, Decisions and Graphs Retrieved from:
chrome-
extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/http://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~gill/BWLectSite/Resources/C2
U4GT.pdf
UDK 510.67
DEFINABILITY OF 2-TYPES IN WEAKLY O-MINIMAL THEORIES
Biyarova N. B.
Suleyman Demirel University
Annotation
This article about "Definability of 2-types in weakly o-minimal theories" by Biyarova Nazira.
This paper describes and compares the properties of various kinds of orthogonality, non-orthogonality
and definability of the 1-types in weakly o-minimal theories, which is one of the classes in the dependent
theories and presumes the conditions for constructing definability of the 2-type in weakly o-minimal
theories.
ТҮЙІН
Берілген мақала “Әлсіз о-минималды теориялардағы 2-типтің анықталымдылығы”. Мұнда
ортогоналдылық, ортогоналдылық еместік және, тәуелді теорияның бір бөлігі болап табылатын,
әлсіз о-минималды теориялардағы 1-типтің анықталымдылық қасиеттерін сипаттайды, сонымен
қатар, әлсіз о-минималды теориялардағы 2-типтің анықталымдылығы орындалу үшін қажетті
шартты қарастырады.
The objective of the thesis is to research and compare the properties of various kinds of
orthogonality, non-orthogonality and definability of the 1 and 2-types in weakly o-minimal theories,
which is one of the classes in the dependent theories.To find out the conditions to construct definability
of the 2-type in weakly o-minimal theories.
432
The task of the thesis: To describe the concept of orthogonality, weakly orthogonality, almost
orthogonality of the types in weakly o-minimal theories. To research the questions: would the non-
orthogonal types be simultaneously definable or simultaneously non-definable, is it possible for an
element over the model and a finite set to find non-orthogonal type of the some element over the model.
This will help to construct the conditions on which definability of all 1-types over the model entails
definability of the 2-type over the model.
Scientific novelty and practical significance of the thesis.
As S.Shelah [1] introduced the concept of a stable theory, the fundamental connection between
stable theory and the definability of the types was founded. It is the theory is stable if and only if every
its type is definable. After that, it became clear how the definable type is significant. But not all the
theories are stable. Any infinite linear order is not stable, i.e. the ordered field of the real numbers doesn’t
have the stable theory. The surprising fact is noted by van den Dries [2] even though the elementary
theory of the ordered field of real numbers is unstable, but each type over the set of real numbers is
definable. Van den Dries’s idea formed the basis of the concept of o-minimality which was introduced
by A. Pillay and C. Steynhornom [3] a concept that still plays a key role in the modern model theory.
Realizing how important o-minimality is, D. Marker, D. McPherson and Charles Steinhorn
generalized this concept by means of weakly o-minimal [4]. Linearly ordered structure is called weakly
o-minimal if any definable subset of it is a finite union of convex sets. They have proved a number of
interesting topological properties of weakly o-minimal structures and real closed weakly o-minimal
ordered field. But, if every 1-type over a model of weakly o-minimum (dependent) theory is definable
do from this follow the definability of any type of model?
The proposed research has fundamental, theoretical, scientific significance due to their use of
recent results of mathematical logic (model theory). The research results can be used for further
research, not only in model theory and algebra, but also in such sections as Computer Science, as a
general theory of relational databases and formal methods of software design.
Figure 1: Model theory
One of the branches of Mathematical logic is Model Theory. Model Theory studies relationship
between semantics (algebraic structure) and syntax (formal language, language of the first order
predicates) in other words model theory studies algebraic structures in terms of mathematical logic.
Where a theory is a set of formulas in a particular formal logic and signature, and a model is a structure
that gives a concrete interpretation of that theory. And the type is consistent set of formulas.
433
Dedekind also defined the type as a cut(Dedekind cut). There are three kinds of cuts: rational,
irrational, quasi-rational. And the definability of the types depends on these kinds of cuts.
The partition ( A, B) of a model M is said to be a cut, if A < B. Here A < B means
⇐⇒ for all a ∈ A
and for all b
∈ B (a < b).
If either A has a maximum element or B has a minimum element, then the cut is called rational
cut.
It is said that the cut is quasi-rational if A as well as B are definable. Non quasi-rational cut is
called irrational cut.
Definition 1. It’s said that α
¯ is weakly orthogonal to the type q if for any A-definable formula
ψ(x¯, y¯), ψ(x¯, α¯) doesn’t divide q(N ) = ∩θ∈qθ(N ) and denoted as α¯⊥ωq.
Definition2. It is said that α
¯ isn’t weakly orthogonal to the type q if there exists A-definable
formula ψ(x
¯, y
¯) such that ψ(x
¯, α
¯) divides q(N) (α
¯ ƒ
⊥ω q). Then p( x)
∪ q(x) is not complete type. This
means that their realization does not depend on each other. More precisely it means that any pair of
(α, β) can be moved from one place to another. The r e a r e t w o ki nd s o f r e a l i z at i on s :
a) p( x)
∪ q(y) ∪ {ϕ(x, y)}
b) p( x)
∪ q(y) ∪{ ¬ϕ(x, y)}.
Figure 2: Weakly orthogonality Figure 2: Weakly non-orthogonality
where p(M ) = ∩
θ
∈P θ(m), q(M ) = ∩H∈qH(m).
Definition 3. Two types p, r
∈ S(A) are almost orthogonal (p⊥ar) if for any α¯ ∈ p(N ), ∀β ∈ (N )
then we have α and β
¯ - A-definable and if p⊥aq one of them is stationary then p⊥ωq . Two types p,
r
∈ S
1
(A) are c a l le d n o t almost orthogonal (p
⊥ar) if the formula divides and gets inside.
Definition 4. The type p(x¯)
∈ Sn(A), where A ⊆ M from theory T is called definable if for any
it’s formula φ( x¯ , y¯) there exist another formula ”controller” Hφ( x¯ ,y¯)( y¯ , m
¯ )
∀ a¯ ∈ A such that
φ( x¯ , a¯)
∈ p ⇐⇒ M |= Hφ,p(a¯, m
¯ ).
434
An n-type p(x¯) is called complete if it is maximal. It means, if for all formula φ(x¯)
∈ M(A, x) either
φ(x¯)
∈ p(x¯) or ¬φ(x¯) ∈ p(x¯) is true.
Note. If p(x)
∈ S
1
(A) and q(y)
∈ S
1
(A), then p(x)
⊥ω q(y) ⇔ p(x) ∪ q(y) is complete 2-type.
Criterii for definability of 1-type in weakly o-minimal theories.
Proposition 1: Let p, q
∈ S
1
(A), p
⊥ω q. Then the following is valid:
1.
If p is strictly definable then
⇐⇒ q is strictly definable.
2.
If p is irrational then q is also irrational and vice versa.
3.
If p is quasi-rational then
⇐⇒ q is quasi-rational.
4.
⊥ ω is the equivalence relation on S1( A).
5.
Let p
∈ S
1
(A) is quasi-rational. Then p is definable.
6.
If p is quasi-rational or isolated then p is definable.
7.
If A=M , where M is a model(structure on which theory is hold), then p is definable if and only
if p is quasi-rational.
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