удк 351
dr. lászló Károly marácz,
PhD in Philosophy. Marácz is Assistant Professor
affiliated to the Department of European Studies
at the University of Amsterdam
multilinGuAlism in the euroPe union
Abstract
This paper discusses the language policy of the European Union (EU). A European language policy
has become necessary due to the fact that linguistic diversity is an inherent part of European history and
within the EU it is a fundamental right to speak one’s own mother tongue. Hence, 23 state languages have
already received an official status within the EU. For maintaining political and social stability within Europe the
introduction of a lingua franca, like English that is clearly on the rise, cannot be the solution for transnational
and multilingual communication. It is to be expected that in the future even more languages, like minority and
migrant languages will receive an official status within the EU.
Key words: language policy, European Union, lingua franca.
аңдатпа
Бұл мақалада Еуропалық Одақтың (ЕО) тілдік саясаты қаралады. Еуропалық тілдік саясат тілдік
әртүрліліктің Еуропа тарихының ажырамас бөлігі болғандығының арқасында қажетті болды және ЕО-
ның ішінде туған тілінде сөйлеу негізгі болып табылады. Сондықтан, 23 мемлекеттік тіл ЕО-ның ішінде
ресми мәртебеге ие болды. Еуропаның ішінде саяси және әлеуметтік тұрақтылықты қолдау мақсатында
lingua franca енгізу, көп таралған ағылшын тілі секілді, мемлекетаралық және көптілдік сөйлесуге шешім
болмайды. Сондықтан болашақта өзге, мысалы халқы аз немесе эмигранттардың тілдері, ЕО-ның
аумағында ресми тіл мәртебесіне ие бола алады.
Тірек сґздер: тілдік саясат, Еуропалық Одақ, lingua franca.
аннотация
Данная статья обсуждает языковую политику Европейского Союза (ЕС). Европейская языковая
политика стала необходимостью благодаря тому факту, что языковое разнообразие является
неотъемлемой частью истории Европы и внутри ЕС право говорить на родном языке является
основополагающим. Таким образом, уже 23 государственных языка получили официальный статус
внутри ЕС. Внедрение lingua franca с целью поддержания политической и социальной стабильности
внутри Европы, подобно английскому языку, который, естественно, гораздо популярнее, не может быть
решением для межгосударственного и многоязычного общения. Поэтому ожидается, что в будущем
многие другие языки, например, малых народностей или эмигрантов, также смогут получить статус
официального языка на территории ЕС.
Ключевые слова: языковая политика, Европейский Союз, lingua franca.
i. the european union’s language policy
The European Union has 27 Member States and 23 officially recognized languages spoken by
almost 500 million inhabitants. The Union favours linguistic diversity and sanctions the use of the 23
official languages at the supranational level [4]. In practice, this means that European citizens have
the right to address the Union’s institutions in their own mother tongue and must be answered in the
language they chose to address the Union’s institutions; EU regulations, the Official Journal as well
as other legislative documents are published in the official and working languages. All fundamental
documents are translated into all the different languages of the European Union. The members
of the European Parliament have the right to use their own mother tongue when they address the
European Parliament.
For the term 2007-2010, a commissioner for multilingualism was appointed. The Romanian
Leonard Orban drafted a new framework strategy for multilingualism. After 2010 multilingualism was
placed under the authority of the Directorate-General Education and Culture. The EU’s language
policy promotes multilingualism. Its objective is that every EU citizen should speak at least two
foreign languages in addition to his or her mother tongue (this is known as the 1+2 formula). This
principle was spelled out at the Barcelona European Council in 2002. The aims are to support the
cultural heritage of the different languages of Europe, to protect the fundamental right to speak
one’s own mother tongue and to recognize that social inclusion is possible only if everyone’s mother
tongue is respected.
The last point is meaningful in terms of European democratic citizenship. Only if social inclusion
is operative is it reasonable to discuss European democratic citizenship. The commissioner for
multilingualism Leonard Orban has also stressed the value of Europeans’ linguistic capital: the
control of more languages by individual speakers. Plurilingual speakers have more opportunities
to find a job beyond their own state. Orban thus sought to strengthen the European economy. A
recent resolution on multilingualism ‘Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment’
adopted by the European Parliament on 24 March 2009 states that the Union ‘Reiterates its political
priority of the acquisition of language skills through the learning of other EU languages, one of which
should be the language of a neighbouring country and another international ‘(…) “lingua franca” (…)’
(compare article 36). Yet, due to the absence of a clear European lingua franca, the 1+2 formula will
not solve the communicational problems in Europe.
Policy makers are well aware that without a clearly defined lingua franca lifelong learning programs
in the European Union will be required. They have therefore supported student exchange programs
ЭконоМиЧеская политика нового куРса Республики казахстан
dr. lászló Károly marácz
Multilingualism in the Europe Union
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such as the Lingua programme (1990-1994) which was the first and exclusively language-related
programme in the Community’s history; in 2001, the European Year of Languages conveyed the
European Union’s keen interest in language-learning to the general public; Leonardo, Erasmus and
Socrates are successful student exchange programmes.
The European Commission has also tried to raise awareness on the symbolic level. Every 26
September Europe celebrates its rich linguistic heritage. The first European Day of Languages was
held in 2001 as a part of the European Year of Languages. Organised jointly by the EU and the
Council of Europe, it continues to draw the public’s attention to the languages used in Europe, to
promote cultural and linguistic diversity and to encourage Europeans to learn languages.
The promotion of linguistic diversity however is neither very efficient nor practical. The European
Union is the largest translating machine in the world with more than 1.5 million pages translated
every year. Translating into all the official languages is time and money consuming, although
the costs represent only about one percent of the budget of the European Union, i.e. only a few
euro’s for each citizen. To streamline the translation efforts, more official documents are drafted
in English (62 percent in 2004), less in French and even less in German (respectively 26 and 3.1
percent). The share of English has been rising since 2004. Major institutions have decided to use a
restricted number of languages. The Directorate-General for Research and Innovation announced
its Framework Program 7 in English only, aligning itself on scientific usage. The European Patent
Office drafts its patents in only three languages: English, French and German. The meetings of the
European Commission acknowledge three official languages, i.e. English, French and German as
procedural languages.
2. multilingualism and lingua francas in european history
Europe is a good example of linguistic diversity. It is important to consider the concept of a lingua
franca as a solution to the problem of linguistic diversity in the history of Europe. In order to make
this explicit, let us first define what a lingua franca is. A lingua franca is a ‘contact language’ between
persons who share neither a common native tongue, nor a common (national) culture, and for whom
the lingua franca is the chosen foreign language [3, pp.7]. In today’s Europe, English is gaining
ground as a lingua franca that could provide a solution to the problem of linguistic diversity. However,
English as a lingua franca is not accepted by everyone; sometimes it is perceived as a threat by non-
native speakers of English. But it should be emphasized that the multilingual history of European
communication has experienced a number of different lingua francas. These lingua francas have
been changing over time and have been subject of a number of failed and successful experiments.
A lingua franca was usually the prestigious language of the ruling class or majority group, who had
enough political power to impose their language on other parts of the empire. In the Roman Empire
two ‘official’ languages coexisted, koine Greek and Latin. They were used in Europe throughout
the Middle Ages. Koine Greek was the lingua franca where the Byzantine Empire was hegemonic,
while Latin was used in the Western parts of Europe. Latin maintained its position as an important
European lingua franca throughout the medieval period because it was Roman Catholic Church’s
language of communication. It was also the language of the scientific community until the early 19
th
century in most specializations. Other languages existed, such as German which was a lingua franca
in large areas of Europe for centuries, mainly on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire as well as
one of the official languages of the Austro-Hungarian Empire [8]. French was the lingua franca of
diplomacy from the 17
th
century onwards and the language of European literature in the 18
th
century.
The rise of English as a lingua franca in diplomacy started after the First World War, when Great
Britain was at the zenith of her power and gained even more influence after the Second World War
when the United States became one of the leading powers in global relations. In the Mediterranean
basin, Italian and Provençal served as lingua francas from the 11
th
to 19
th
century, especially in the
European commercial empires of Italian cities and in trading parts located throughout the eastern
Mediterranean rim. Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe
and among intellectuals from the 14
th
century to the end of the 16
th
century. Later, French replaced
Italian as a lingua franca among educated Europeans.
Polish was a lingua franca in areas of Eastern Europe; especially in regions that belonged to
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, an empire that collapsed with the Third Partition of Poland
in 1795 [2]. For several centuries, Polish was the main language spoken by the ruling classes in
Lithuania and Ukraine.
Russian is used and understood in areas formerly part of the Soviet Union and is sometimes
understood by older people in Central and Eastern Europe, formerly part of the Soviet-Russian
dominated sphere of influence. Russian remains the lingua franca in the Commonwealth of
Independent States.
Serbo-Croatian functioned as a lingua franca in all of the former Yugoslav republics, including
Slovenia and Macedonia. However, Serbo-Croatian as a lingua franca in the multinational Yugoslav
federation was hardly realized in practice. The concept of Serbo-Croatian as a lingua franca was not
clear making it impossible to speak of a codified and unified Serbo-Croatian of any kind, nor was
the general introduction of a Serbo-Croatian lingua franca possible due to exclusive nationalism
among the speakers of minority languages. Hence, there was too little linguistic cohesion to keep the
Yugoslav federation together [6].
Most of the above mentioned languages stopped functioning as lingua francas after the empires
to which they were connected collapsed or lost their prestige. The tendency to marginalize regional
lingua francas became stronger after the First World War when most of the European regional lingua
francas had to compete with the national languages of the newly established or strengthened nation
states. Nation states developed in the course of the 19
th
century and became hegemonic in the
twentieth century. Lingua francas could only maintain their status when they acquired the status of
official language in a multi-ethnic state, as in former Yugoslavia.
It cannot be denied that English as a lingua franca is on the rise in the European Union [10]. While
English has only 13 percent native speakers within the Union, it is further spoken by 38 percent
of the Union’s population as a foreign language. This gives a total of 51 percent of the Union’s
population speaking English which is clearly more than German or French. Although German-
speaking communities represent the highest percentage of Europeans, 18 percent of the population,
German is used only by 14 percent of all the Union’s speakers as a foreign language. This results
in 32 percent of the total number of speakers. French is the third frequently spoken language in
the European Union, namely 12 percent mother tongue speakers and 14 percent foreign speakers,
which results in 26 percent of the total speakers of the Union.
Some commentators worry that English as the lingua franca of a globalised world may endanger
the vitality of the other European languages as vehicular languages [7]. The need for a common
means of communication is in potential conflict with the ideals of societal multilingualism and
individual pluralingualism. It is safe to conclude that English as a lingua franca will not be the ultimate
solution to overcome Europe’s multilingual realities. At the moment, there is not a clear and unique
variety of English that is used by everyone in the Union. A top-down imposition of a lingua franca not
supported by all the speakers of the state is a risky enterprise as historical experiments, like socialist
Yugoslavia illustrate. Hence, a top-down imposing of English as a lingua franca in Europe would
most likely back-fire. Instead of supporting an ever closer union it would fuel nationalist language
conflicts undermining Europe’s unity.
3. future Perspectives on european multilingualism
During the 20
th
century, states supported their national languages throughout Europe; one of
the most important socio-political constructs of national identity according to political scientists.
The ‘one-state-one nation-one language’ ideology did not tolerate the presence of other languages
on the territory of the nation state. This was therefore a century during which multilingualism was
suppressed and native speakers of non-official languages discriminated against. Such language
policies dominated in a large number of states including those under the hegemony of the communist
Soviet-Union. In our age of globalization and transnational cooperation [9] nationalism and the nation
state are losing ground, and the European Union officially recognizes multilingualism [1].
Globalization and transnational cooperation affect the modern state by such universal principles
as democracy, the protection of human rights and minority rights which, in turn allow promoting
linguistic diversity. In Europe’s multi-level governance, the role of the nation state has dwindled
[1]. The EU exists at the supranational EU level, at the level of the Member States and at the
level of regions and the Union has recognized that this three-tiered system is relevant for language
policy and planning. The Council’s resolution of 21 November 2008 is in agreement with this. It
states that multilingualism should be organized at the appropriate level. This principle is called
‘subsidiarity’. Furthermore, due to Europeanization, the linguistic norms and values drafted in the
texts on multiculturalism and regional and minority languages now have an effect over the whole
continent. A common European communicative sphere has come into existence where former
regional or supranational lingua francas have re-emerged. In neighbouring areas such as Belgium
Flanders and the Netherlands, Italian South Tyrol and Austria, and Romania’s Transylvania and
ЭконоМиЧеская политика нового куРса Республики казахстан
dr. lászló Károly marácz
Multilingualism in the Europe Union
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Hungary linguistic communities have been reconnected by the weakening of the national border
and the stimulation of cross-border, transnational cooperation. In these regionally restricted border
areas, old communicative patterns have resurfaced within the EU regime. The emergence and re-
emergence of transnational communication based on regional lingua francas by-passes linguistic
diversity on the periphery of Europe. In conclusion, with the establishment of the Union the role of
monolingual states has been reduced, multilingual states have been given opportunities to develop,
and multilingualism has been implemented throughout the whole territory of the Union.
Linguistic diversity is now anchored in the legal system of the EU [1]. Policies of multilingualism will
continue, even if they meet with strong resistance from the Member States. According to article 3 of
the consolidated Treaty on European Union, the so-called Lisbon Treaty describing its aims, stipulates
amongst other things that the Union ‘shall
respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity, and
shall ensure that Europe’s cultural heritage is safeguarded and enhanced’. The provision mirrors
article 22 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights (ECFR), which states that: ‘The Union
respects cultural, religious and linguistic diversity’. These articles will also be used by those who want
a system that is even more multilingual. The enhancement of minority and regional languages has
only just begun [5]. There will also be conflicts, because of the strengthening of linguistic diversity on
the one hand and the balancing of efficiency and costs on the other [7].
Any attempt to use the new linguistic provisions of the Lisbon Treaty to influence language policies
in the Member States, for example those affecting linguistic minorities both autochthonous minority
and migrant communities will be considered in this context. It is nevertheless not excluded that the
European Court of Justice will need to express itself at some point in time on national language
provisions that affect the fundamental freedoms of the Treaty, even the most sensitive ones. That
may well be the ultimate test for defining the extent of the ‘respect for linguistic diversity’ in the
European Union.
Apart from the 23 official languages on the territory of the Union, approximately 60 indigenous
regional or minority languages are also spoken. Indigenous minority languages are languages that
are spoken by a minority community distinct from the majority constituting the state nation. Sometimes
these minority languages can be official languages in the regions where they are spoken by the
minority groups. No special European Union conventions protect minority languages, although the
right to use one’s mother tongue is recognized as a fundamental right. The European Parliament
has adopted several resolutions to protect minority rights, including language rights. Even more
aggressive policies in support of indigenous minority languages have been adopted by the United
Nations, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Council of Europe. The
Council of Europe has formulated the clearest legal treaties to protect the national minority languages:
the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCPNM) signed on 1 February
1995 in Strasbourg and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) signed
on 5 November 1992 also in Strasbourg. Those conventions encourage positive discrimination
actions in favour of minorities and their languages included. They recognize that minority rights are
collective rights and that cross-border cooperation is not restricted to states and regional authorities
involved and they make a significant contribution to the protection of a common cultural heritage. The
protection of languages also encounters assimilatory state policies and the process of uniformization
caused by modern civilization [5].
Note however that the language policy of the Union supporting multilingualism and recommending
multilingual competence as a means to counterbalance the absence of an officially declared lingua
franca is a rather exceptional choice from a global perspective. In multilingual states and empires it
is common to impose a lingua franca from the top-down, independent of the question of whether it
works or not. The other three great powers in the world, i.e. the US, Russia and China have a clear
lingua franca, i.e. English, Russian and Mandarin Chinese respectively [6].
references
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Durk Gorter. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 2008, 3-63.
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3 Hülmbauer, Cornelia, Heike Böhringer and Barbara Seidlhofer. ‘Introducing English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF): Precursor and Partner in Intercultural Communication.’ Synergies Europe no. 3, 2008, 25-36.
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6 Maurais, Jacques, and Michael A. Morris, eds. Languages in a Globalising World. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 2003.
7 Phillipson, Robert. English-Only English?: Challenging Language Policy. London: Routledge. 2003.
8 Rindler-Schjerve, Rosita, ed. Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the 19
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Habsburg Empire. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 2003.
9 Steger, Manfred. B. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
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Дата поступления статьи в редакцию 25 ноября 2012г.
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