Литература
1 Валиханов Ч.Ч. Аблай // Валиханов Ч.Ч. Собрание сочинений в пяти томах. Т.4. – Алма-Ата, 1985.
2 Валиханов Ч.Ч. Исторические предания о батырах XVIII века // Валиханов Ч.Ч. Собрание сочинений в пяти томах.
Т.1. – Алма-Ата, 1985.
References
1 Valihanov Ch.Ch. Ablaj // Valihanov Ch.Ch. Sobranie sochinenij v pjati tomah. T.4. Alma-Ata, 1985.
2 Valihanov Ch.Ch. Istoricheskie predanija o batyrah XVIII veka // Valihanov Ch.Ch. Sobranie sochinenij v pjati tomah. T.1.
Alma-Ata, 1985.
Әбділдин Ж.М., Әбділдина Р.Ж.
Ш.Уәлихановтың Абылайхан туралы еңбектері Абылай-ханныц тұлға феноменін түсіндіру үшін ғана маңызды емес,
сонымен қатар ғалым-ағартушының концепциясы үлкен методологиялық және ғылыми мағынаға ие.
Ш.Уәлиханов қазақ ханы Абылайдың әрекеттерін зерттеуге арналған жұмыстарында ғылыми көзқарастан
оның өрлеуінің себебін түсіндіреді. Оның қалыптасуында, бір жағынан, жеке тұлғалық сапалар және хан ретіндегі
қабілеттіліктер маңызды болды, екінші жағынан, оның маңызды тарихи тұлға ретіндегі қалыптасуына оның қазақтар
үшін қиын жағдай кезінде, халық алдында тағдыр шешуші мәселе туындаған сәтте шығуы мүмкіндік туғызды.
Абылай хан өз елінің саяси тәуелсіздігін қорғап қалды. Оның қызметінің, дана саясатының арқасында, Қазақ
мемлекеті күшейіп, қазақ жері, жүздері бірігіп, халқы тыныш, бейбіт және аман өмірге қол жеткізді
Түйін сөздер: Абылай-хан, қазақ хандығы, жоңғарлар, Әбілмәмбет-хан, қазақ батырлары.
Zh. M. Abdildin, R. Zh. Abdildina. Chokan Valikhanov on Ablai Khan
Chokan Valikhanov’s studies on Ablai Khan are important not only in providing insight on the phenomenon that is Ablai Khan’s
personality: this concept by the distinguished scientist and enlightener is of great methodological and scientific importance.
In his research on the accomplishments of the extraordinary Kazakh Khan Ablai, Valikhanov explains the cause of Ablai’s rise
to prominence. On the one hand, the Khan’s personal qualities and abilities played a great part in his formation; on the other hand,
his establishment as an outstanding historical personality is partly attributed to the fact that he stepped forward at a time fateful
for the Kazakh people, when its very existence was at stake.
Ablai Khan successfully defended the political independence of the country. Thanks to his balanced and wise policy, the
Kazakh state become more powerful, all the lands and the entirety of the ‘zhuzes’ were united, while Kazakhs were able to lead a
life of peace and prosperity.
Key words: Abylai Khan, Kazakh Khanate, Zunghars, Abilmambet Khan, Kazakh batyrs (heroes).
Поступила в редакцию 26.02.2016.
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UDС 325.3:35.082.23(574)(045)
A. ABDINA, A. TURGALEYEVA
Doctor of Philosophic sciences, associate professor S.Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana,
PhD, senior lecture S.Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana
THE STATUS OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE IN KAZAKHSTAN THROUGH THE PROCESS
OF COLONIZATION AND POST-COLONIZATION
The Republic of Kazakhstan is a young independent country. After the collapse of the USSR there was not only economical
and social problem, but also a lot of cultural and education issues. Over seventy years the Soviet Union spread its politics of using
only Russian language and for modern Kazakhstan it became one of the challenges in the process of creation language policy. The
purpose of this literature review is to analyze different viewers of position of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. This research
consists of two main parts: historiographies overview of language policy and sociolinguistic changes during the period from
colonialism to present day in Kazakhstan.
Keywords: language policy, sociolinguistic change, colonization, post-colonization, russification, the state language, the
language of international communication.
“Linguistic imperialism”
The status of Russian language became one of the issues for the modern Kazakhstan. The history shows that
Russian language has had the biggest impact on our culture, education and social life. Many Kazakhstani and foreign
authors analyze the process of Russification and de-russification in the post-soviet countries from the positive and
negative positions.
Johnson (2004) emphasizes, that colonization started in the 18th century and the main proposal of Tsarism
was “Russification” of Kazakh steps [1]. Russian language had higher status than others and Ramanathan (2013)
mentioned that this process can be called as a “linguistic imperialism” [2,292]. Hamel (2006) offers to study language
imperialism from tow perspective: the first is linguistic factors (language spread, shift, dominance) which influence
the process of building empires, and the second is ways of creating imperial language [3,5].
Theories of empire and imperialism developed over the 19th and 20th centuries largely within and in opposition
to Marxist theory. Within a Marxist framework, imperialism was defined as the natural next stage that evolved out
of colonialism [3, 5]. The first more common and useful definition of empire was given by Achard: “The exercise of
power from a given political unit over social formations which this political unit considers both as ‘foreign’ {…} and
as globally submitted to the rule of the first society’s power” [3,5].
In that point, Russian empire was the first powerful society and Kazakhstan was under this influence. If we
consider linguistic factors, Tsarism used different tools to shift linguistic domination here. Johnson [1,27] writes
that Russian colonial policy markers with the intention to spread Russian language and involve people more directly
into colonial system and its values, opened “Russian-native” schools which took children out of the local elites.
Special efforts were also made in 1880s, and after providing educational opportunities for the Kazakh and Kyrgyz
population, in the form of aul schools. That was intended to accommodate nomadic children and expanded social
control. Pavlenko (2008) writes that the process of the implementation of Russian had various forms in the different
parts of Tsarist Empire. For instance, Russifacation was “applied selectively to particular ethnic and social groups”.
She compared the west and the east Russification and according to his research the Central Asia was less exposed to
this process: “The Russian language never moved beyond the bureaucratic structures, and native languages enjoyed
an unprecedented revival” [4,279].
However, Hamel (2006) argues that the existence unequal power relations to force nations to choose between their
own and colonial language for studying with the purpose to reject mother-tongue schooling because Russian language
promises access to a much wider knowledge base and socio-economic relations [3,8].
Pavlenko emphasizes that the main target of language policy was bilingualism of the titular elites and before 1917
revolution Russian was integrated in their linguistic status, which became the measure of the highest position. In
comparison with other Central Asian nations, Kazakh elites were largely involved in colonial governance structure.
The same status had Russians that legally settled in the Central Asia and in 1896 the number was estimated at 400
000 [5,2]. These facts describe the situation of “the linguistic imperialism hypothesis” which “argues that English –
like other colonial languages – was imposed by force on native populations, albeit selectively, as part of an array of
other imperial measures for maintaining and reproducing control, or at least cultural and linguistic hegemony” [3,8].
The next important step to language shift was the question about an alphabet. Kazakh script used Arab alphabet
but Russian authority wanted to create a new Kazakh script which would be based on Cyrillic. The first version of
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this alphabet was made by N. Ilminskii and I.Altynsarin, and was performed in a few schools in the first half of
19th century. However, in 1890s, this alphabet stopped applying [6,187-189]. Before 1920s Arab letters were used
and then adopted for Kazakh script by A.Baitursynov. The final point was made by the Soviet government which
changed the alphabet from Arabic to Cyrillic script in 1940 and had the aim to separate the Soviet Turkic peoples from
ethnically close nations or destroy pan-Turkism movement [7-8].
Johnson (2004) focuses not only on negative aspects of the colonial period but he also tries to write about positive
sides of Russification: there was the creation of modern Kazakh literary language and the beginning of the process
of Kazakh national movement [1,28].
The Soviet Union’s korenizatsiia policy
After October Revolution in 1917, Bolshevik regime tried to implement new language policy with the task to
collaborate different nationalities and found a new positive image of the government. The policy of «indigenization»
or “korenizatsiia” was conducted in 1920 by the Soviet government in the national areas to replace Russian language
to national and to incorporate local people to the policy management process. The main goal of korenizatsiia was to
correct Tsarist Russification policy, strengthen credibility of ethnic minorities to the Soviet power, by encouraging
local residents to participate actively in the local management system [9].
According to the Pavlenko (2008) paper korenizatsiia had more complicated results. It wasn’t possible to stop
Russification process as this policy formed new ethnic groups and national territories [4].
In this nation-building process, the Soviets drew and redrew borders, dissolved ethnic groups (e.g. Sarts), created
new ethnicities and languages (e.g. Moldavians/Moldavian), reinforced boundaries between fluid identity categories
and dialects (e.g. Uzbek/Tajik), formed new national territories (e.g. Turkmenistan), and eventually embedded firmly
national categories into the very fabric of Soviet life [4,280].
American historian, the author of the most interesting work of the national policy of the Soviet Union, T. Martin
investigates the impact of “korenizatsiia” over 1920s and 1930s. Martin’s second preoccupation is to monitor and
explain the dynamic change in the operation of “korenizatsiia”. The study suggests that Soviet nationalities policy
was more “multi-factorial than had been commonly represented” and Leninist strategy was implemented to avoid
national separatist tendency which was still strong [10].
Liu Xianzhong in his work “An analysis of the pros and cons of the localization policy of the Soviet Union in
the 1920’s” (2013) presents advantages and disadvantages of the korenizatsiia. The first positive point is a number
of national minorities which represented communist party and the government. For instance, in 1930s in Kazakhstan
12,7% was local national. However, it was a very small quantity in comparison with other republic (Georgia-74,6%,
Ukraine-36,2%) [9,43]. This situation was a result of lack of qualified and educated personnel in the Central Asian
region. Next positive point is education and language policy. The Soviet government built a lot of national schools
and developed national languages. Moreover, the Soviet government required to conduct official paperwork and
publish textbooks in national languages [9,44].
During this period, the USSR conducted extensive work to create alphabet for nations who had not have it yet. In
20s-30s 46 of these ethnic groups had received their alphabet. These steps were aimed not only to develop national
languages and culture, but also it became an important basis for spreading communist ideology. One of the important
results of Korenizatiian policy was people’s appreciation. National minorities felt respect for Soviet power which
strengthened their confidence in the administration system. Bolshevik national policy in this period got a high score
by some Western scholars and one German historian called it a «golden age» of Soviet national policy [9,45].
However Liu Xianzhong emphasizes that, this policy had opposite effect for Russian. Russians became minorities
in some parts of the union and it impacted their social position. In some cases, they were oppressed by the national
government [9,45]. The second fact is that the policy of korenizatiian led to the growth of nationalist attitudes [9,46].
The Soviet policy of korenizatiian had been directed to correct the Tsarist policy of Russification, but it had kinks
and some negative consequences.
Russification and Sovietization of Kazakhstan
After 1930 the USSR had rigid and effective language policy. Pavlenko (2008) writes that the russification of
1930s had three approaches that involved status and “acquisition planning (Russian) and corpus planning (local
languages)” [4,281]. According to acquisition planning, 1938 decree declared Russian an obligatory second language
in non-Russian schools. In addition, the decree established a set of universal standards, centralized the curriculum,
increased the number of Russian hours, provided necessary textbooks and teaching training. The education reform
in 1959 gave the opportunity for parents to choose the language of instruction for their children and this law led
to the growth of a number of pupils in Russian-secondary schools. All these factors influenced Russian prestige
and created a new measure for social mobility. Although from 1959 not less than 700 Kazakh schools were closed
[11,159]. Moreover, the higher education was predominantly only in Russian instruction and there was no possibility
for learning Kazakh. There were only a few higher education institutions that offered a university degree in Kazakh.
In the area of corpus planning, a 1935 decree required the transfer of all Soviet languages with Latin alphabets to
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Cyrillic. Another corpus planning act dealt with the grammar of local languages. The decree required to implement
neologisms only from Russian language. The result was a massive influx of Russian terms into local languages,
particularly in domains concerned with socialism, communism, science and technology.
The Constitution of the USSR did not provide Russian as “official language” however, Russification had crucial
effect in the Soviet republic. The USSR declared several principles, the first was the equality among its peoples, the
second was the right of every nation to use its own language, the third was the right to education in his/her national
language and access to cultural materials in this language [7,5]. Despite all of this and the idea of internationalization,
friendship of peoples supporting national cultures, the real implemented policy had opposite aim.
The last point which characterizes successful Russification policy in Kazakhstan is migration. According to
Peyrouse (2008) research between 1926 and 1939, 1.7 million men left European Russia to live in the Central Asia,
and numerous kulaks were deported there as well. As a result of the Second World War many factories and industrial
centers were moved from the front lines to the Central Asia region. The last big migration wave was during the Virgin
Lands Campaign which began in 1954. Peyrouse shows the figures that accentuate the tendency toward Russification:
“The proportion of Russians in the total population of the republic jumped from 20.6 percent in 1926 to 42.7 percent
in 1959” [5,2].
Thus, researches assume that Tsarist russification was focused more on people, the Soviet policy had the biggest
influence not just on people, but it caused the changes in their languages, their lexicons, grammar, and orthography,
and even territories, russified as a result of state-sponsored migration [4-5].
The status of Russian language in the post-Soviet countries
In 1991 the Republic of Kazakhstan got its independence. Since that time New government has accepted many
decrees which began the process of kazakhization and derussification.
The first language law was accepted in 1989 in Kazakh SSR and with other legal documents changed the status
of Kazakh. The question of Kazakh language and its status became one of the most important parts of the new life of
the young republic. The Soviet nationalities policy not only made Kazakh a minority in their own republic with 39,7
population, but also made the Northern Kazakhstan predominantly Russian, the South mostly Kazakh [7,7].
In 1989, the Kazakh language was declared an official state language. In 1995, a constitutional resolution was
passed that is clearly and precisely spelled out in article 7 of the Constitution: «The state language of the Republic of
Kazakhstan shall be Kazakh.» However, Russian language didn’t lose its leading position, it became “officially used
on equal grounds along with the Kazakh language.” (Constitution 1995) [12].
After the independence the first result of the policy of derussification was Russian emigration. 1 million 400
thousand of Russians left Kazakhstan between 1989 and 1999, while the overall out-migration during that period was
1 million 800 thousand [5,3]. Another social issue was the ethnic composition of the state power.
A few very important laws, regulations, orders and decrees were passed for extension of the functioning of the
Kazakh language in the so-called controlled spheres of communication: public administration, paperwork, including
a single system of the electronic document management. Moreover, some laws have changed education system: “a
law making Kazakh mandatory in all schools, at the same level as Russian” [13,10].
However, these requirements don’t lead to the spread of Kazakh language. According to the population census of
2009, 64.4% of Kazakhstani people possess the Kazakh language, and 94.4% – the Russian language. The Kazakhs
constitute 63.1% of the population, and 11.7% know the Kazakh language at elementary level [14].
Next point is the government’s decision about changing the administrative-territorial division of the state. The
capital was moved from Almaty to Akmola which late was renamed as Astana. Beacháin gives very arguable statement
about this decision:
“The location of capital caused the influx of (influential) Kazakhs and it diminished the power base that Russians
were holding in the north. There were also changes made in the borders of the administrative units within the country
(oblast’), in order to include more ethnically kazakhified areas into the more russified areas, to dilute the power of
Russian voters in general elections” [15,217].
The first Constitution of independent Kazakhstan, adopted in 1993, made Kazakh and Russian unequal. Late,
due to some protest in the Northern and Eastern parts of the country, the new Constitution of 1995 gave Russian an
equal status in administration and public affairs. However the citizenship law declared that the dual citizenship was
forbidden and it caused dissatisfaction by the Russian in the north of Kazakhstan.
Fierman (2006) raises very important questions about Russian status in schools and the change of instruction.
He emphasizes that urban population was more russified than rural because of demographic and linguistic factors.
Indeed, adult urban ethnic Kazakhs mostly had graduated from Russian secondary schools and their children were
following their parents’ paths. Moreover, many urban Kazakhs were culturally russified.
“For them, not just the language, but the culture of Moscow and Leningrad (today St. Petersburg), not mentioning
Siberia, were much closer than the culture of the rural traditional Kazakh areas of their own country” [16,102].
And this linguistic and cultural russification was more valuable for their educational and social mobility. Also
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Fierman shows a few factors which keep high status of Russian language. The first is that job advancement in urban
areas generally continues to require excellent Russian language skills. Next point is the quality of Russian secondary
higher education in Kazakhstan is generally higher than of Kazakh’s moreover, the variety of subjects available in
Russian is broader than in Kazakh. Beyond this, there is a serious lack of textbooks for Kazakh higher education, even
students study in Kazakh groups he or she must use Russian books, especially in technical subjects. That’s why in
2003 only 32 percent of students studied in Kazakh instruction groups [16,113].
In addition, there is a lot of criticism about the official usage of the Russian language in public institutions
and local authorities [7; 13-14]. In that point, Russian is a way easily used in their work by the Russian-speaking
Kazakh elite. This problem now is one of the major political factors of language policy in Kazakhstan. For instance,
researches emphasize that often some policymakers speculate with this language issues and stress a link between
Kazakhstan’s political independence and “linguistic independence” [16,115].
On the other hand, trying to delete the Russian language from the public sphere can cause deterioration of
our relations with the Russian Federation. Russia considers the Russian language as a factor of strengthening its
geopolitical and geo-economic presence in the CIS countries. In august 27, 2011, Dmitry Medvedev said that Russia
would promote and strengthen the position of the Russian language in the CIS countries as a means of international
communication and working language of the CIS [17].
Russian as a lingua franca
Multinational community consisting of different languages usually produces certain traditions of interethnic
communication. In that point is actual to analyze the status of Russian language as a lingua franca. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica defines the term lingua franca as follows:
“Language used as a means of communication between populations speaking
vernaculars that are not mutually intelligible”.
The term was appeared in the middle age to describe a French and Italian based jargon or pidgin, that was
developed by Crusaders and traders in the eastern Mediterranean [18,7].
The Oxford English Dictionary stresses the hybrid nature of lingua franca:
“….transformation any mixed jargon formed as a medium of intercourse between people speaking different
languages” [19].
However we can’t say that Russian in the post-Soviet countries uses as hybrid with local languages but people
use it for interethnic communication.
Pavlenko (2006) describe the situation in the deferent part of post Soviet Union and emphasize that Russian
became a lingua franca due to Russification policy of Tsarism and the USSR and huge migration flows [20]. As a
result of this policy 272 million people who live in the territory of 22 402 200 км² can communicate in Russian
[5,16]. So after collapsing of the USSR, inspired of rigid derussification policy in some countries, Russian has become
the lingua franca.
Nevertheless, Russian speakers in the post Soviet countries have high levels of language loyalty and continue to
favor Russian-language media, press, publications, and theaters; in cities and towns with large numbers of Russian
speakers, Russian remains a main means of communication [20,90].
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